Cochinilla rosada del Hibisco, Maconellicoccus hirsutus

The results of the present study have both theoretical and practical implications. They

contribute to our understanding of the development of cognitive underpinnings of literacy in both first and second language and they also inform educational practices.

One of the main findings of the present study was that multiple components of English spelling proficiency are related, but somewhat independent from one another and that a speller may be good at one aspect of spelling, but not as good at another. This finding presents an important contribution to the general area of literacy research. It shows that spelling is a much more complex phenomenon than it had been previously thought, and it is impossible to talk about spelling as one general skill. Particularly interesting from the developmental perspective is

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the finding of the dissociation between L2 phonological and spelling skills, which stands in contrast with one of the most well-established links in L1 literacy research, namely the one between phonological awareness and alphabetic literacy in L1. The results of the present work suggest that early L1 phonological skills might benefit not only the development of reading and writing in the first language, but also the acquisition of literacy in the second language, while L2 phonological skills do not contribute to spelling skills beyond instances when the correct spelling depends on the perception of a non-native contrast.

Methodologically speaking, the finding of multiple components of spelling proficiency is important because it shows that multiple tasks are needed to get a comprehensive assessment of language users‟ spelling skills. In addition, this finding is important for educational practices because it suggests to us that spelling instruction methods that only emphasize one aspect (e.g., irregular word memorization) are not going to be the most successful and that a variety of exercises is needed in order to develop the linguistic expertise underlying different aspects of spelling competence.

The results of the present study suggest that the ways individuals approach the cognitive task of learning to spell in English are not the same across all learners. These differences in cognitive mechanisms of English spelling can be in part predicted from the characteristics of the L1 writing systems and explained by the transfer of native language literacy skills. This result is in line with the idea in cognitive psychology that experience plays an important role in shaping cognitive processes: the more one practices a task, the more proficient one becomes at it. The more one uses a particular cognitive strategy to do certain linguistic tasks in one‟s own language – the strategy that makes sense for that particular language, the more well-practiced that strategy is and the more likely one will be to exercise that strategy in a new language, even if it is not the most adaptive one. Importantly, however, native language is far from being the only factor determining the cognitive mechanisms of L2 spelling development. Just like language transfer does not explain every error made by L2 learners, it also does not fully explain which spelling

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strategies learners use in L2. Consistent with previous research in L1 (e.g., Weekes, 1994), the results of the present study demonstrated considerable individual differences in spelling strategies, with learners‟ native language only creating a bias towards a particular strategy.

At the same time, in the task that imitated the real-life problem of spelling in English the best, namely the task where participants spelled irregular English words, the differences in spelling accuracy between the three EFL groups were minimal. This suggests that despite the differences in cognitive mechanisms determined by the differences in L1 orthographies, learners are able to arrive at comparable results in L2 spelling, given enough practice. This demonstrates the flexibility of the mind‟s learning capacities by showing that it can use multiple routes to achieving the same learning goal. In other words, given enough experience, language learners‟ minds can arrive at the same results via different routes, while native language orthography, alongside other factors, will influence which route is taken.

In addition, the present study also showed that in some components of English spelling proficiency EFL learners can achieve the same levels as native English speakers. This finding enriches our understanding of the cognitive prerequisites of English literacy. Most of the research on English reading and writing development available so far comes from studies of native English speakers. The present study adds to the existing body of work on English literacy development by showing that there can be multiple ways to fully master English spelling.

This finding also has implications for English as a second language instruction. The understanding of how an individual‟s first language experience may shape cognitive processes underlying literacy may help educators improve ESL literacy instruction methods. More specifically, the results of the present study suggest that a “one fits all” method of teaching English as a second language will not be the most efficient and that it can be beneficial for learners if the teaching method incorporates learners‟ strengths and weaknesses that result from literacy training in a particular native language. Such methodology would take into

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which strategies they are likely to use to read and write in English. An efficient method of instruction would encourage the use of native language strategies that are helpful in English, such as whole word memorization of morphological analysis, but discourage the use of non- adaptive strategies, such as sounding out.

The results of the present study also underscore the importance of motivational factors for L2 spelling proficiency and suggest that fostering linguistic curiosity in students may be efficient in the development of their spelling skills. According to the findings, understanding of linguistic structures and connections is more beneficial for learning than memorization of linguistic facts, which adds to the body of evidence showing that linguistic awareness plays an important role in L2 learning.

Finally, the implications of the present study go beyond the domain of second language literacy, but bear on L2 learning more generally. More specifically, the results of the

morphological task suggest that understanding of English word structure might also depend on the kinds of units that learners‟ L1 orthography reflects. Thus, Russian orthography is

morphology based and Russian speakers need to develop morphological analysis skills in order to learn to spell correctly. This expertise seems to make the morphological structure of English words more salient for Russian EFL learners.