2.2.2. Habits Theory of Interpersonal Behaviour
Attitude-Behaviour-Context Theory 2.2.3. Values Value Theory
Value Action Gap 2.2.4. Personal Norms Norm Activation Model
2.2.5. Beliefs New Environmental Paradigm & The Human Paradigm Value-Belief-Norm Theory
2.2.6. Economic reasoning Rational Choice Theory Prospect Theory
2.2.7. Knowledge Information Deficit Model Knowledge Action Gap
Model of Responsible Environmental Behaviour 2.2.8. Identity Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Lewinian principle Self-Discrepancy Theory
Symbolic Self-Completion Theory Self-Perception Theory
2.2.9. Social Environment Social Cognitive Theory Social Learning Theory Other person principle Identity Theory Social Identity Theory
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As they form the basis of many behavioural theories, the Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behaviour, explaining the impact of attitudes and intentions on behaviours, are first described [165], [166]. While they are now commonly applied to environmental behaviours, these two theories have been extended through the development of other theories that demonstrate the influence on behaviours of factors such as goals, habits, values, personal norms and beliefs (See Table 2.I) [165].
2.2.1. Attitudes & Intentions
The Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behaviour, developed by Ajzen & Fishbein, explain how attitudes and intentions predict behaviours [166]. Nowadays, these theories are two of the most-commonly applied models in the study of environmental behaviours [165], [166].
2.2.1.1. The Theory of Reasoned Action
The Theory of Reasoned Action was described by [167]. It assumes that individuals are rational and are not controlled by ‘unconscious motives or overpowering desires’ [130], [167], [168]. Human behaviours that are under voluntary control are directly influenced by intentions, that are themselves influenced by attitudes and subjective norms [167], [169]–[172].
Attitudes towards a behaviour refer to the positive or negative evaluation of the outcome of a behaviour based on material, social or psychological consequences and of the likelihood of this outcome [170], [171]. Following this theory, environmental attitudes lead to environmental behaviours [64], [130]. People are indeed more likely to engage in a behavior if they consider that their actions will have a positive impact on the environment [7], [85], [173]. Thus, individuals with positive environmental and water conservation attitudes use less water than those with less positive attitudes [64], [130]. However, attitudes and behaviours are connected at the same level of specificity [149]. As an example, recycling can be best predicted by a set of recycling attitudes rather than by a set of general environmental attitudes [148].
Subjective norms or social norms are the perceived social pressure to perform a behaviour or the “perceptions that certain behaviours and attitudes are considered typical or desirable” within a community [167], [171], [174]. It implies that individuals value social relationships and behave according to what they think is socially desired [175]. They want to give a positive image of themselves to members of their social group [176]. Therefore, increasing people’s awareness of social norms can help shape behaviours [177].
For [173], there are two types of social norms: (1) injunctive norms (doing what others think one should do) and (2) descriptive norms (doing what others do). First, people engage in a behaviour
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if they have a positive attitude towards this behaviour and believe that their peers expect them to act in a certain way [7], [173]. In that sense, the decision to perform a behaviour can reflect an individual’s perceptions of the personal and social consequences of their actions [179], [180]. Then,behaviours are influenced by what others do [179]. Situational cues therefore play a crucial role in informing about others’ behaviours [88]. For instance, seeing others engage in a compulsory water conservation campaign encourage people to cooperate with the conservation effort [11]. Similarly, comparisons with neighbours’ water usage, also encourage water conservation [63], [181]. However, situational cues have a reverse effect when many people openly violate norms [88]. Indeed, witnessing others wasting water can reduce individuals’ conservation efforts [2], [182]. Observing negative behaviours can also lead people to think that environmental issues are caused by others and that they should not be held accountable for them [63]. If people believe that the costs of environmentally-responsible behaviour is not equally shared by others and if they feel that their actions alone do not have enough impact, they can be reluctant to act [179]. Collective action is then difficult to obtain [179].
Performing a behaviour also depends on the difficulty of performing the behaviour and on the resources and opportunities it requires [176]. Therefore, intentions to act pro-environmentally are not only influenced by attitudes and subjective norms but also by one’s “own perceived competency” to perform a behaviour [177]. The addition of constraints or control beliefs, as determinants of behaviour in the Theory of Reasoned Action resulted in the development of another theory: The Theory of Planned Behaviour [170], [171], [176].
2.2.1.2. The Theory of Planned Behaviour
In line with the Theory of Reasoned Action, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) considers that behavioural intentions predict future behaviour [171], [172]. Yet, in addition to attitudes and subjective norms, these intentions are also being determined by one’s perceived behavioural control or by the conviction that one has the required skills and resources to perform the behaviour [7], [172], [177], [183], [184]. Perceived control includes people’s locus of control, self-efficacy, feelings of powerlessness, or “moderators” such as gender, socio-economic status, group membership or income [170].
To adopt a new behaviour, individuals need to believe that they have the ability and resources to perform the desired behaviour [7], [184], [185]. For instance, individuals with water-saving skills are likely to reduce their water consumption [11], [186]. However, water conservation is limited when people do not know how to reduce their usage [90], [186]. Heightening the perception of individual control through the monitoring of people’s use of certain resources can be a good way to encourage environmental intentions [177]. Conversely, insufficient behavioural control can
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prevent people from taking actions [177]. This lack of control can be due to a lack of skills or to external factors [11], [186].
Situational influences and contextual forces such as regulations or infrastructure, can be drivers or barriers to people’s actions either by having a moderating effect on environmental attitudes or by directly affecting ecological behaviours [170], [187]. According to [113], the attitude- behaviour association is the strongest when contextual factors are neutral but is weak when the contextual forces compel and prohibit a behaviour [113], [188]. For instance, if personal behaviours are difficult, time-consuming or expensive, their dependence on attitudinal factor is weak [113]. As an example, the availability of alternatives to driving in cities can encourage the use of such means of transportation [113], [187]. However, restricted options or choices can limit people’s ability to reduce the usage of their cars [187].
While the TPB is widely used to explain behaviours, many studies have extended it by adding predictors to behaviours [165]. Indeed, determinants such as habits, past behaviours, personal norms, beliefs, knowledge and identity have been found to impact behaviours either directly or indirectly [171], [177], [183], [187], [189].