Another dimension to violence is that of masculinity. According to Heilman & Barker (2018), the key cause of men’s and women’s violence is not being biologically male or female. Girls and boys are not born to be violent but are “raised, taught, socialised, encouraged, traumatised into, and made to witness violence” (Heilman & Barker (2018:7)In their report on masculine norms and violence, Heilman & Barker (2018) mention five processes by which masculine norms shape the likelihood of men and boys experiencing or becoming perpetrators of violence. These are: “Achieving socially recognised manhood, policing masculine performance, ‘gendering’ the heart, dividing spaces and cultures by gender, and reinforcing patriarchal power” (Heilman & Barker, 2018: 9).
Achieving socially recognised manhood is at the core of masculine gendering. There is a demand for those recognising themselves as male persons to continually achieve their manhood and to continually police this performance. Men are also typically expected to refrain from showing too much emotion. Further, ideas of masculinity are also reinforced by dividing both physical and social spaces into ‘male’ and ‘female’ spaces with those spaces occupied by males being spaces where violence is reinforced and rehearsed. Ultimately power is reinforced by power structures that advantage men over women and men over other men.
Forms of violence that are rooted in part of muscular norms include intimate partner violence where rigid norms regarding gender and gender roles contributes to the use of violence by men (Heise, 2011; Moore & Stuart, 2005 cited in Heilman & Barker, 2018). According to these authors, when men think that they are not perceived as being ‘masculine enough’ they may resort to intimate partner abuse to overcompensate gendered expectations. Another form of violence rooted in muscular norms is violence against children by caregivers such as parents. This violence can take the form of corporal punishment, more serious manifestations of physical violence, emotional abuse and neglect. Child sexual abuse and other forms of exploitation are also rooted in masculine norms. Masculine norms are in most cases at the root of bullying. Hostile
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educational and family environments as well as social contexts and physical locations have consistently been found to be risk factors for bullying. Other crimes rooted in masculinity are homicide and other violent crime, non-partner sexual violence, suicide, and conflict and war (Heilman & Barker, 2018). In Figure 2.1 these authors provide a conceptual overview to demonstrate the link between harmful masculine norms and violence.
According to figure 2.1 patriarchal power is at the root of all processes of harmful masculine gendering. According to the World Health Organisation (2013) thirty % of ever-partnered women have experienced some form of physical or sexual violence from their male partners. Children growing in these environments get influenced by patriarchy and are likely to imitate these behaviours in their lives.
Figure 2.1: Masculine norms and how they contribute to multiple forms of violence
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Of greater interest to this study is bullying, which happens a lot at schools. As already alluded to, masculine norms are in most cases at the root of bullying. Bullying is a group phenomenon that occurs in a social context where various factors serve to promote, maintain, or suppress such behaviour (Rodkin & Hodges, 2003). Swearer and Hymel (2015) identify five levels of influences, namely the individual influences, family influences, peer influences, school influences, and community and cultural influences. At the individual level, bullying perpetration has been associated with endorsement of masculine traits, callous-unemotional traits, conduct problems, psychopathic tendencies, antisocial personality traits, susceptibility to peer pressure, anxiety, and depression (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). Even though no direct causal link has been established, family characteristics such as negative family environment, domestic violence, lack of parental emotional support, poor supervision, and family members’ involvement in gangs have been linked to bullying perpetration (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). Peer influence is very important as learners spend most of their time with peers (at school, in neighbourhoods, in communities, and with peers on social media). In many cases peer norms are characterised by support for bullying. School influences are also very important. A negative or positive school environment can affect the frequency of bullying and victimisation. It has also been argued that inappropriate teacher response has been linked to higher levels of bullying and victimisation (Bauman & Del Rio, 2006). At the community level there are higher levels of bullying that are linked to negative or unsafe environments, gangs, and poverty (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). The authors recommend that efforts to prevent bullying should focus on transforming harmful masculine norms. They recommend engaging men and boys as
well as girls and women on, “…how traditional gender norms and gender non-
conformity are connected with perpetration and experiences of bullying, explain, illustrate, and discuss the direct connection between the perpetration of bullying and power, control, and social acceptance, being careful to do so in a way that invites self- awareness rather than placing blame, provide participants with a safe space to practice nonviolent, healthier ways to navigate peer groups and social dynamics, and discussing ways that participants can foster group settings and peer networks that
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value healthy expressions of masculinity and embrace rather than punish individual differences” (Swearer & Hymel, 2015: 50).