DETALLE DE ANCLAJE MÍNIMO DE REFUERZO LONGITUDINAL EN VIGAS
COEFICIENTES DE FRICCIÓN PARA CABLES POSTENSADOS
Inform Yourself
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Read the Constitution. Visit the Library of Congress’s “The Making of the U.S. Con- stitution” page (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/ac001/lawpres.html) to read a brief account of the Constitutional Convention followed by the text of the Constitution as originally adopted (that is, without the Bill of Rights and other amendments). The text of the Constitution also appears at the end of this book. Are you surprised by how short the document is? Does the text sound familiar? What did you not expect to fi nd?
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Dip into James Madison’s notes from the Constitutional Convention. To read what happened on those hot summer days in 1787 in Philadelphia, click on a day in the calendar on “The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787” page to read that day’s entry in Madison’s journal (www.constitution.org/dfc/dfc_0000.htm). After reading the notes for any day, answer the following questions: What did the members of the Convention agree on? What issues did they disagree on? Can you fi nd evidence of the debates between the small and large population states? Can you fi nd evidence of the debates between slave-owning and non-slave-owning states? Can you fi nd debate over the power of the presidency?
Watch a slide show on the Bill of Rights. “Jump Back in Time” is also presented by the Library of Congress (www.americaslibrary.gov/jb/nation/jb_nation_ bofright_1.html). Four short slides walk you through the adoption of the Bill of Rights.
Connect with Others
Visit the United States Constitution page on Facebook. The U.S. Constitution has more than 200,000 Facebook fans. What type of posts appear on this page? Do the messages refl ect different interpretations of the Constitution? What does this tell us about the Constitution? Is the Constitution a living document, or is it fi xed in stone?
1. In their fi ght against British taxes such as the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act of 1764, New England merchants allied with which of the following groups?
(p. 30)
a) artisans, southern planters, and laborers
b) southern planters only c) laborers only
d) artisans only
e) southern planters and laborers only 2. How did the British attempt to raise
revenue in the North American colonies? (p. 30)
a) income tax b) taxes on commerce
c) expropriation and government sale of land
d) government asset sales e) requests for voluntary donations 3. The fi rst governing document in the
United States was (p. 33)
a) the Declaration of Independence. b) the Articles of Confederation. c) the Constitution.
d) the Bill of Rights. e) the Virginia Plan.
4. Where was the execution of laws conducted under the Articles of Confederation? (p. 33)
a) the presidency b) the Congress c) the states
d) the federal judiciary e) the federal bureaucracy 5. Which event led directly to the Con-
stitutional Convention by providing evidence that the government created under the Articles of Confederation was unable to act decisively in times of national crisis? (pp. 35–36)
a) the Boston Massacre b) the Boston Tea Party
c) Shays’s Rebellion d) the Annapolis Convention e) the War of 1812
6. Which state’s proposal embodied a principle of representing states in the Congress according to their size and wealth? (p. 37) a) Connecticut b) Maryland c) New Jersey d) Rhode Island e) Virginia
7. The agreement reached at the Consti- tutional Convention that determined that every fi ve slaves would be counted as three free persons for the purposes of taxation and representation in the House of Representatives was called the (pp. 38–39)
a) Virginia Plan. b) New Jersey Plan. c) Connecticut Compromise. d) Three-Fifths Compromise. e) Great Compromise.
8. What mechanism was instituted in the Congress to guard against “excessive democracy”? (p. 40)
a) bicameralism
b) staggered terms in offi ce c) appointment of senators for long
terms
d) indirect election of the president
e) all of the above
9. Which of the following best describes the Supreme Court as understood by the Founders? (p. 44)
a) the body that would choose the president
b) the highest court of the national government
c) arbiter of disputes within the Congress
study guide
Practice Quiz
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Find a diagnostic Web Quiz with 33 additional questions on the StudySpace website: www.wwnorton.com/we-the-people.5 8 C H A P T E R 2 T H E F O U N D I N G A N D T H E C O N S T I T U T I O N
d) a fi gurehead commission of elders e) a supreme court of the nation and
its states
10. Theorists such as Montesquieu referred to the principle of giving each branch of government a distinctly dif- ferent constituency as (p. 46) a) mixed regime. b) confederation. c) laissez-faire. d) limited government. e) federalism.
11. Which of the following were the Anti- federalists most concerned with?
(pp. 48–49)
a) interstate commerce b) the protection of property c) the distinction between principles
and interests
d) the potential for tyranny in the central government
e) abolishing slavery
12. Which of the following best describes the process of amending the Constitu- tion? (pp. 52–53)
a) It is diffi cult and has rarely been used successfully to address spe- cifi c public problems.
b) It is diffi cult and has frequently been used successfully to address specifi c public problems.
c) It is easy and has rarely been used successfully to address specifi c public problems.
d) It is easy and has frequently been used successfully to address spe- cifi c public problems.
e) It is easy, but it has never been used for any purpose.
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Chapter Outline
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Find a detailed Chapter Outline on the StudySpace website: www .wwnorton.com/we-the-people.amendment (p. 52) a change added to a bill, law, or constitution
Antifederalists (p. 48) those who favored strong state governments and a weak national government and were opponents of the constitution proposed at the American Constitutional Convention of 1787 Articles of Confederation (p. 33) America’s fi rst written constitution; served as the basis for America’s national government until 1789 bicameral (p. 40) having a legislative assem- bly composed of two chambers or houses; distinguished from unicameral
Bill of Rights (p. 40) the fi rst 10 amendments to the Constitution, ratifi ed in 1791; they ensure certain rights and liberties to the people checks and balances (p. 40) mechanisms through which each branch of government is able to participate in and infl uence the activi- ties of the other branches. Major examples
include the presidential veto power over con- gressional legislation, the power of the Senate to approve presidential appointments, and judicial review of congressional enactments confederation (p. 34) a system of government in which states retain sovereign authority except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government
elastic clause (p. 43) Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution (also known as the neces- sary and proper clause), which enumer- ates the powers of Congress and provides Congress with the authority to make all laws “necessary and proper” to carry them out electoral college (p. 40) the presidential electors from each state who meet after the popular election to cast ballots for president and vice president
expressed powers (p. 43) specifi c powers granted by the Constitution to Congress (Article I, Section 8) and to the president (Article II)
Key Terms
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Find Flashcards to help you study these terms on the StudySpace website: www.wwnorton.com/we-the-people.Beard, Charles. An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States. New York: Macmillan, 1913.
Beeman, Richard. Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution. New York: Random House, 2009.
Breyer, Stephen. Active Liberty: Interpreting Our Democratic Constitution. New York: Knopf, 2005.
Hamilton, Alexander, James Madison, and John Jay. The Federalist Papers. Edited by Isaac Kramnick. New York: Viking, 1987.
Jensen, Merrill. The Articles of Confederation. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963. Rossiter, Clinton. 1787: Grand Convention. New York: Macmillan, 1966.
Storing, Herbert, ed. The Complete Anti-Federalist. 7 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.
Wood, Gordon S. Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
For Further Reading
federalism (p. 41) a system of government in which power is divided, by a constitution, between the central (national) government and regional (state) governments
Federalist Papers (p. 48) a series of essays
written by James Madison, Alexander Hamil- ton, and John Jay supporting the ratifi cation of the Constitution
Federalists (p. 47) those who favored a strong national government and supported the constitution proposed at the American Constitutional Convention of 1787 Great Compromise (p. 38) the agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 that gave each state an equal number of senators regardless of its population, but linked representation in the House of Repre- sentatives to population
judicial review (p. 44) the power of the courts to review and, if necessary, declare actions of the legislative and executive branches invalid or unconstitutional. The Supreme Court asserted this power in Marbury v.
Madison (1803)
limited government (p. 51) a principle of constitutional government; a government whose powers are defi ned and limited by a constitution
New Jersey Plan (p. 37) a framework for the Constitution, introduced by William Paterson, that called for equal state representation in the national legislature regardless of population
separation of powers (p. 41) the division of governmental power among several institu- tions that must cooperate in decision making supremacy clause (p. 44) Article VI of the Constitution, which states that laws passed by the national government and all treaties “shall be the supreme law of the land” and superior to all laws adopted by any state or any subdivision
Three-Fifths Compromise (p. 39) the agree- ment reached at the Constitutional Con- vention of 1787 that stipulated that for purposes of the apportionment of congres- sional seats, fi ve slaves would count as three free persons
tyranny (p. 49) oppressive and unjust govern- ment that employs cruel and unjust use of power and authority
Virginia Plan (p. 37) a framework for the Constitution, introduced by Edmund Randolph, that provided for a system of representation in the national legislature based upon the population of each state
Federalism was at the center of the controversy concerning the Afford- able Care Act, as 26 states sued the federal government over the health care reform law. When the Supreme Court heard arguments in the case in 2012, groups on both sides of the issue demonstrated outside the Court.
Federalism
3
WHAT GOVERNMENT DOES AND WHY IT MATTERS Few laws have
attracted as much controversy as the Affordable Care Act, the Obama admin- istration’s signature legislation that aimed to make health care available to all Americans. From the time it was enacted in 2010, the law became the target of opponents in the states who charged that the federal government exceeded its constitutional powers in enacting the measure. In 2012, Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts surprised many when he broke with the Court’s con- servative majority, penning an opinion that declared the main provisions of the Affordable Care Act constitutional.1 Yet the Court’s ruling raised fundamental
questions about federal power and about the relationship of the federal govern- ment to the states.
The decision introduced the potential for signifi cant new restrictions on fed- eral power in two main ways. First, it limited the reach of the commerce clause, the main constitutional provision under which federal power has expanded for the past 80 years. Although the Court found the controversial individual mandate—the requirement that uninsured individuals buy health insurance— constitutional, it ruled that this provision could not be justifi ed under the com- merce clause. Instead, the decision stated, it was Congress’s taxing power that justifi ed the mandate.
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Even more surprising was the Court’s ruling that the federal government could not cut off all Medicaid funding to states that declined to expand the program as required in the Affordable Care Act. Expanding Medicaid, the federal-state program that provides health care to low-income Americans, was one of the main ways the new law sought to reduce the number of uninsured. Further, the federal government has long attached conditions to funding as a way to achieve national goals. For example, in 1984, the federal government pressured state governments to change the laws governing the age at which a person could legally drink by threatening states with the loss of federal highway funds if they did not adopt the new drinking age. The ruling on health care is likely to unleash challenges to the many laws that seek to infl uence what states do by attaching conditions to federal funds.
The debates about the Affordable Care Act engaged one of the oldest questions in American government: What is the responsibility of the federal government and what is the responsibility of the states? And when should there be uniformity across the states and when is it better to let the states adopt a diverse set of laws? The United States is a federal system, in which the national government shares power with lower levels of government. Throughout American history, law makers, politi- cians, and citizens have wrestled with questions about how responsibilities should be allocated across the different levels of government. Some responsibilities, such as international relations, clearly lie with the federal government. Others, such as divorce laws, are controlled by state governments. Many government responsibili- ties are shared in American federalism and require cooperation among local, state, and federal governments. The debate about “who should do what” remains one of the most important discussions in American politics.
keyconcepts
Federalism has shaped American politics from the country’s beginnings to the present.
The defi nition of federalism has changed radically in the last two centuries. The federal government has done far more since the 1930s than it did during the “traditional system,” from 1789 to the 1930s.
The states continue to exert great power over citizens’ everyday lives.
The “New Federalism” of recent years has turned more power back to the states.
Sometimes the federal government requires the states to do things but does not give the states the money to do them.