Colorantes naturales

Girls surpass boys in elementary school grades, thus they have a better chance to be accepted to good high schools. Girls’ grades in junior- and in high school and at the college level have been better than boys’ since the mid-eighties both in Israel and in many other countries (e.g. Eccles [Parsons], 1984; Eccles, 1985; Ziv, 1990).

Gender differences in achievement favoring boys were found among South African 9th graders (Grobler, Grobler, & Esterhuyse, 2001). Class size correlated negatively with achievement for boys but not for girls (ibid). The boys achieved a significantly higher mean mark than the girls. The corresponding effect size was 0.48 (ibid). A greater percentage of the variance in mathematics achievement was accounted for among boys (53.07%) than among girls (38.70%) (ibid).

In a comparative study of 1,487 11th graders from Leipzig and Senasi (Randel, Stevenson, & Wirtuk 2000) that among German students – more than among Japanese ones – boys obtained higher scores in the given mathematics test, we more likely to spend more time studying mathematics, and place more importance in going to college than girls did.

Eisenberg, Martin, & Fables (1996) have stated, that gender differences in

math achievements have decreased, but many studies show that gender differences in math attitudes of American and European students still exist (e.g. Castambis, 1994).

Out of the 21 countries participating in the TIMSS 1995 study, significant gender differences in math and science literacy among 18-year olds were found in 20 (Mullis

et al., February 1998, table 1.3). The largest gender difference was found in

Norway, the second large – in the Czech Republic, the third – in Austria and Denmark, and the fourth – in Sweden.

It should also be noted, that among the 21 countries examined in the 1995

TIMSS study, the four where 100% of both male and female 12th graders participated

table 4.3), three of which reporting the smallest gender differences in achievements. Among those reporting the largest gender differences in achievement, Denmark reported also of 31% female students and 12% male students not taking math in 12th grade; Norway – 37% females and 27% males, Austria – 25% females and 28% males, and Switzerland 37% females and 40% males in 12th grade not participating in math classes (ibid, ibid).

The European countries with minimal and also insignificant gender gaps in achievements among 12th graders taking advanced math were Greece, Cyprus, and Slovenia (ibid, table 5.4). The two European countries with the minimal gender differences achievements in math and science in the year 1995 were Hungary and Cyprus.

Gender gaps in participation .

.2 .2 3

It is quite common nowadays that more females than males that graduate from high school. In Germany Hosenfeld, Koeller, & Baumert (1999) found that while 32% of the boys studying in the Hauptschule, the least demanding track that ends after grade 9 or 10, the percentage of girls in this school type was only 21. In the Realschule, which ends after grade 10, the percentage of boys is similar to that of girls: 27 vs. 30. 40% of the girls and only 30% of the boys study in the most prestigious school type: the Gymnasium – the university preparatory school. One of the results of this situation is the disappearance of gender differences in mathematics achievements. When exposed to a higher level of education females benefit from the high level of instruction and reach a higher achievement level. Another example is Italy: the percentage of male students learning physics in 12th grade was in the year 1995 51, while females consisted of 49% of this population (Mullis et al, July 2000).

In the TIMSS 1995 study Germany and Switzerland had the lowest female participation rate – 44% – in 12th grade math and science. In Switzerland females consisted of 46% of 12th graders studying advanced math.

As we know, dropping out of math results in not being able to take science. Thus, three out of the four countries with a 100% math participation in grade 12 had either all 12th graders take at least one science course (Cyprus and the Russian Federation), or a high percentage of 12th graders taking at least two science courses: Cyprus (97%); the Russian Federation (99%+), and Lithuania (81%) (ibid, table 4.4.). The countries with the largest gender differences in math participation had also

the lowest male participation rate in science: in Norway – just 1% of 12th graders took 3+ science courses; in Denmark only 3%, in Switzerland – 11%, and in the Netherlands – 13% (ibid, ibid).

Cyprus had also a remarkable female participation rate in math and science – 55%. The other European countries with a female participation rate of over 55% were: Lithuania (65%), the Russian Federation (62%), and Austria (61%) (Mullis et al., February 1998, table 1.3). However, these three countries were among the five with maximal gender gaps among 12th graders taking advanced math. The other two countries were the Czech Republic and Switzerland.

To demonstrate the variety of gender math gaps around the world let us look at two more examples from the TIMSS 1995 and 1999 studies:

1. Thought in the Czech Republic gender difference in 8th grade were similar to those in Israel, Czech females achieved higher than Israeli males (ibid, Exhibit D.1);

2. Gender differences favoring boys are positively related to achievements decline; thus, in Israel and the Czech Republic who both suffered from a substantial decline in achievement from 1995 to 1999 (ibid, table 1.13), significant gender differences developed during these four years. On the other hand, both Japan and Holland, where achievements were much higher than in Israel, succeeded in 1999 to eliminate the gender differences still existing in 1995 among 8th graders. In Korea, who had the second best achievements in the world, the average achievement was similar to that of percentage 90 in Israel, and a small but significant gender difference was found – favoring girls!