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SDT’s core construct reflects on the role and importance of need attainment in relation to the behaviour and well-being of the individual, and asserts that satisfaction of basic psychological needs can result in well-being and vitality throughout the lifespan (Kasser & Ryan, 1999; La Guardia, Ryan, Couchman, & Deci, 2000; Ryan, 2009). These needs are for autonomy,

competence and relatedness. The Basic Psychological Needs Theory, within the SDT framework succinctly define the role of the needs by saying “needs specify innate psychological nutriments that are essential for ongoing psychological growth, integrity and well-being” (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Proponents of SDT theory point out that people do not do things specifically to satisfy needs; rather satisfaction of needs happens when people do things that they find fun, meaningful

and interesting (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). BPN are a valuable platform from which to forecast the social environment’s potential contribution to well-being and BPN satisfaction has been studied in varied contexts including education, healthcare, work, sport and environment (“Self

Determination Theory,” 2015). Fulfilment of BPN has positively predicated attachment security (La Guardia, Ryan, Couchman, & Deci, 2000), indicated universality in across culture studies (Chen et al., 2013); and implicated positively in a broad range of health studies (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Jordalen, 2012; Van Hooff & Geurts, 2014). It is argued as a suitable theoretical base for positive psychology (Deci & Vansteenkiste, 2004); with a growing literature of a relationship between satisfaction of BPN and optimal health and well-being (Ilardi, Leone, Kasser, & Ryan, 1993; Jordalen, 2012; Leversen, Danielsen, Birkeland, & Samdal, 2012; Patrick, Knee,

Canevello, & Lonsbary, 2007; Ryan, 2009; Weinstein & Ryan, 2010). Ill-being and

psychopathology are repeatedly ascribed as responses to having these basic needs thwarted or frustrated (Chen et al., 2014; Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000; Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013). Of particular relevance for this study, and giving support to the theoretical framework chosen for this research, is that the BPN are evidently prominent in Community Psychology discourse (Nelson & Prilleltensky, 2010) where they are seen as essential to community well-being; in prosocial volunteer literature (Weinstein & Ryan, 2010; Windsor, Anstey, & Rodgers, 2008) and in positive psychology literature (Ryan et al., 2008).

2.6.1. Autonomy.

Autonomy refers to the feeling of being un-coerced in one’s actions, i.e. making one’s own choices, doing things of one’s volition. Recent studies adopt the term “self-endorsement” as a synonym when referring to autonomy, as discourse surrounds the traditional meaning

“independence” as being misperceived as having only an individualistic perspective. A collectivist embracing of autonomy is supported by studies in various fields which show that people may act autonomously by choosing to be dependent on someone else (Stone et al., 2009). Autonomy-support is a terminology within this theory that is used to refer to environments which offer climates conducive to need satisfaction. Environments lacking in autonomy-support have been shown to lead to need frustration. Conflicts in autonomy, “feeling pressured to think, feel or behave in specific ways” (Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004, p. 475) will not result in need satisfaction, and have been linked to biological and psychological problems (Ryan et al., 1997). Autonomy supportive behaviour involves recognizing the need for autonomy in others, and enabling conditions which support their volition and avoid control as motivation (Guay, Ratelle, Larose, Vallerand, & Vitaro, 2013). Positive outcomes of this are seen in prosocial studies which show that lower volunteer turnover is predicted by autonomy support. This was seen in Gagne’s

examination of factors affecting volunteer engagement in prosocial behaviour (Gagné, 2003). Further, autonomy support, along with work hope and career planning has been shown to contribute significantly to fostering achievement motivation of high school adolescents from backgrounds of poverty (Kenny, Walsh-Blair, Blustein, Bempechat, & Seltzer, 2010).

2.6.2. Competence.

The second need, competence, refers to feeling capable, how effectively you are able to do things (Compton, 2005). Satisfaction of this need happens when individuals feel they have necessary skills that enable them to succeed (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Competence by large is gained through learning, skill development and knowledge acquisition. Challenging

environments present opportunities for gaining competence when individuals feel capable of negotiating accomplishment (Brien et al., 2012; Patrick, 2014). Familiarity has been shown to increase competence as it is based on previous learning and understanding, as was seen in a study examining knowledge sharing in virtual communities (Yoon & Rolland, 2012). Factors affecting competence negatively include workload and gender prescription (Ryan & Deci, 2000c).

Competence is arguably the most subjective of the BPN, as it relies on the perception of the individual. Perceived competence has been linked to positive academic achievement (Guay et al., 2013); work performance and proactive behaviour (Vansteenkiste & Ryan, 2013).

2.6.3. Relatedness.

The BPN of relatedness looks at the human propensity to “form strong, stable interpersonal bonds” (Reis et al., 2000, p.421). It describes feeling connected to others, a sense of community or belonging. Continued studies show that people in satisfying relationships have better health and well-being. Interactions best for satisfying the needs of relatedness are varied, and include shared emotional connections, intimacy and avoidance of conflict (Reis et al., 2000).

Relationships that allow for satisfaction of this BPN increase intrinsic motivation, such as when teachers taking interest in their students, showing them caring and support, may motivate students to perform better in the class (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Further to this, SDT sees relatedness as benefiting when there is reciprocity in the relationship, such as when there is mutual respect and mutual reliance on each other (Slemp & Vella-Brodrick, 2013).

2.6.4. BPN in review.

Although the basic psychological needs as set forward by SDT are viewed as essential to well-being, recognition of these needs is not original within the field of positive psychology. Many other theories have over time identified similar constructs. As far back as 1989 Ryff explored like-minded ideas in her theory of positive human development, which were later refined and elaborated as the Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being (Ryff & Keyes, 1995).

Relatedness is recognizable as positive relationships in Martin Seligman’s theory of flourishing (PERMA); and also in other prosocial theories (Mowen & Sujan, 2005). Competence appears many times in the literature as mastery, and autonomy is universally recognized not only in positive psychology but within broader realms of management, and positive leadership (Oostlander et al., 2013). What is unique to SDT is that the BPN have been consistently validated under peer scrutiny. A study compared 10 psychological needs, to ascertain the ones appreciated as most essential to humans, and reported that the basic psychological needs of SDT were consistently validated across studies (Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, & Kasser, 2001).