In recent years, as the previous Chapter has emphasized, the debate centred on individual differences has strongly increased, and has been frequently supported also in the nursing literature.
In particular, considering socio-demographic characteristics, several studies revealed that older nurses and nurses with a higher working seniority are less likely to report burnout (Rashedi et al, 2014), conflict and violence in workplace (Pai and Lee, 2011; Piquero et al., 2013; Wei et al., 2016), job dissatisfaction (Hayes et al., 2006; Garrosa et al., 2006), and physical illness (Cavalheiro et al., 2008; Schreuder et al., 2010; Braveman and Gottlieb, 2014; Rahedi, 2014). However, these latter findings may be justified considering the "healthy worker survivor effect", which describes that the longer the exposition, the less the adverse effects of exposure (Robins, 1986). Indeed, it has been demonstrated that workers who remain in a certain employment tend
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to be healthier over time (Arrighi and Herz-Picciotto, 1994; Tinubu et al., 2010). Moreover, experienced and older nurses may also have got higher skills and self-confidence and may have developed more adaptive coping strategies (Tinubu et al., 2010).
In this perspective, the analysis of the subjective perception of environmental conditions, in the form of Personality characteristics and Coping strategies has been also addressed in order to clarify their role in the nursing profession.
In particular, research on Personality characteristics revealed the negative influence of the presence of Type A Behavioural Pattern on nurses’ job performance, job satisfaction (Motowidlo et al., 1986; Goodfellow et al.2007) and wellbeing (Edwards et al., 1990; Jamal, 1990; Papadatou and Ananostopoulos, 1994). Then, clearly, also in nursing literature Type D personality has been supported in its association with negative health conditions. For example, nurses characterized by a Type D Personality were found more likely to report anxiety, depression, sleep and somatic disorders (De Fruyt and Denollet, 2002; Oginska-Bulik, 2007). On the opposite side from the Type D Personality, research has shown the protective role of “hardy personality” for nurses, characterized by a sense of control, commitment, and challenge (Jadkins, 2001; Garrosa et al., 2006, 2010). This Personality characteristic defines individual with an optimistic perception of the experiences, and with a high sense of control, based on the recognition of own’ influence on events, as well as with a good tendency to challenge (Kobasa-Ouellette and Di Placido, 2001). Furthermore, as previously underlined, nurses are exposed to several stressors on a daily amount, and they can be considered at higher risk for reporting work-related stress. Therefore they also need appropriate tools to deal with work experiences in order to safeguard their wellbeing. In this perspective, some studies have also analysed the role played by coping strategies (see also III.4.1). Research in this field revealed that the use of “positive coping strategies”, such as
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Problem-focused, Humour and Optimism, was related to nurses’ job satisfaction (Marshall, 1980; Boumans and Landeweerd, 1992; Haely and McKey, 2000; Golbasi, 2008). Moreover, these coping strategies were also associated with positive mental (Mark and Smith, 2012a, 2012b) and physical health (Boumans and Landeweerd, 1992; Guido et al. 2011). Otherwise, Avoidance coping strategy, which has been often considered as one of the most “maladaptive” coping strategies, has been associated with a high risk of poor mental health among nurses (Haely and McKey, 2000; Mark and Smith, 2012a, 2012b).
However, a gap in this field can be traced if gender differences were considered. Indeed, nearly all the studies didn’t explore occupational stress in male nurses, or, whenever male nurses were included in the samples, their enrolment was limited1.
Nevertheless, despite research has often under-represent male nurses, some studies has underlined some gender-specific results in the explanation of work-related stress.
For example, Li and colleagues (Li et al., 2006) revealed that female health care workers perceived lower job control but higher rewards. In addition, higher Overcommitment and lower job control were negatively related to men’ wellbeing, while effort and rewards were significantly associated with women’ health status. Recently, Yada and colleagues (Yada et al., 2014) showed that women nurses were more likely to report work-related stress due to their ability, their attitude toward nursing and as a reaction to fatigue and anxiety; whereas men nurses reported greater irritability, in particular, due to patient’s attitudes. Moreover, female nurses were found performing more emotional work than their male co-workers (Strazdins, 2000).
Additionally, considering nursing health, studies showed the prevalence of women reporting poor sleep quality (Kudielka et al., 2004; Lo et al., 2010; Berkman et al., 2015), musculoskeletal
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(Lorusso et al., 2007; Cavalheiro, 2008; Kane, 2009), and gastrointestinal disorders (Cavalheiro, 2008; Kane, 2009),
Some gender differences have been also found when coping strategies have been considered. In particular, men were defined as being more likely to use problem-focused coping strategies, while women were considered as more vulnerable because they deal with stress event in a more emotional-focused way (Brems 1995; Ptacek et al., 1994; Whately et al. 1998; Meledez et al. 2012), and they base their self-esteem on the others (Narayanan et al. 1999). These results were often confirmed in the nursing profession, and male nurses were described as more active in coping with stress than their female co-workers (Gahromi et al., 2013; Lee, 2015). Moreover, beyond these stereotypes, in order to examine the nursing context, it seems necessary to consider that also nursing is considered as a “female work” (Abbott and Wallace 1990; Porter, 1992). Nevertheless, findings on gender differences in the nursing literature need to be interpreted with caution, because of the widespread gender asymmetry in the study populations used.
More research is needed to explore the gender variable in the field of nursing, also addressing the possible effects of stereotypes (e.g. “the nursing as female and mothering work” and “the emotional coping as a female and negative strategy”).