6. Metodología
8.1 Comparación de las cuatro empresas del periodo 2012 al 2017
Interviews on healing practices
During 2002/2003 I interviewed church leaders and members of 102 churches in Atteridgeville on moral identity and healing practices.9 The results of these interviews are important for this study. They reveal the religious discourses on illness and healing prevalent in the churches attended by the research population described in 1.4.1. The patients who came for counselling to Kalafong Hospital during the said period, with a few exceptions, were attending churches in Atteridgeville. This establishes the church leaders and members who were interviewed on their churches’
healing practices as part of the research population of this study.
The faces of structured religion in Atteridgeville
The inhabitants of Atteridgeville are overwhelmingly orientated towards Christianity. According to the 2001 census10 91% of the people in this township are Christians, 0,5% are Muslims, and another 2% of people belong to Judaism, Hinduism or an African
9 Part of this research I have done for an Oral History Project sponsored by the Research Institute for Theology and Religion, where I work as the Director of Research.
10 Numbers provided by Statssa, percentages presented and interpreted by myself.
17 Traditional Religion. Only 6,5% indicated that they belonged to no religion, or prefer not to react to the question on their religious affiliation.
Numbers on religious affiliation in Atteridgeville provided by Statssa11 on the 2001 census are helpful, but confusing for the following reasons:
1. The table of religious affiliations given by Statssa amounts to 43 707 people living in Atteridgeville, while the Pretoria Central Statistic Services indicated that this township housed 194 420 people in 1993, with a projected population of 240 000 in the year 2000.12 Coertze indicated that, already in January 1960, the population of Atteridgeville was 45 196.13 2. Also, the categories for classifying the churches/religions in Atteridgeville given by Statssa give an inconclusive view of structured religious life in this township. Categories such as
“Other Reformed Churches” and “Other Independent Churches” testify to the census’ struggle to find an appropriate classification for all churches in Atteridgeville.
I shall therefore present my own classification of structured church life in Atteridgeville, based on the 102 churches interviewed during the above-mentioned project. There are an estimated 150 churches in Atteridgeville. This estimation was made by one of the patients at Kalafong, Ms Gabisile Mashigo, who assisted in identifying and making appointments with the different churches, and her friend, Mr Dingane Masilela, who both have an intimate knowledge of church life
11 Statistics South Africa which was responsible for executing and interpreting the 2001 national census.
12 Quoted by JS Krüger in his book Sweeping Whirlwinds: A study of religious change: Reformed religion and civil religion in the city of Pretoria (- Tshwane) (1855-2000), (Pretoria: Unisa Press, 2003), p 96.
13 RD Coertze, Atteridgeville, ‘n stedelike Bantoewoonbuurt (Pretoria, 1969), p 43.
18 in this township. In our view, the 102 churches interviewed represent church life in Atteridgeville well and spontaneously lend themselves to classification.14
Percentages of church life according to a five-fold classification
My classification of the churches in Atteridgeville is a five-fold classification which will be explained in more detail shortly. Here, as an introduction, percentages will be given of the representation of each type of church. This is to indicate the influence of each type of church in terms of size. It is important to know this, since every class of church presents its own variety of illness and healing discourses. These percentages differ vastly from those of Statssa, the latter being based on the number of believers belonging to a specific church. My percentages are based on the number of churches visited.
It is difficult to coordinate Statssa’s classification with ours, because of the vagueness of Statssa’s categories and its inability to group the born-again churches as a type of churches on its own. A comparison can, only with reservation, be tabled as follows:
Table 1: Percentage: church affiliation in Atteridgeville
Type of churches Percentage
affiliation according to Statssa based on number of believers
Percentage
affiliation according to the this study based on number of churches
1 Classical Mainline Churches
55,5% 34% (35 churches
interviewed)
14 The classification is exclusively Christian, since the only mosque in Atteridgeville refused an interview.
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The main difference between the two strands of percentages is that Statssa attributes a small place to the born-again Churches within the overall scenario of churches in Atteridgeville. This may be because the concept of “born-again Churches” is understandably foreign to Statssa which is not an interpreter of religious movements;
consequently, census 2001 has classified the members of these churches under various categories (as “Independent” or simply as
“Christian”). On the other hand, I have allocated almost a third of the religious scenario to the born-again churches, based on
1. the number of these churches operative in the township, 2. an estimation of their adherents, and
3. my experience of their influence on the health of believers.
As indicated above, more than half of the patients counselled at Kalafong Hospital belonged to a born-again church.
An attempt at classification
The following is my attempt at classifying church affiliations in Atteridgeville, checked against the studies of Allan Anderson,15 and
15 Allan Anderson, Bazalwane, African Pentecostals in South Africa (Pretoria:
University of South Africa, 1992); Tumelo, the Faith of African Pentecostals in South Africa (Pretoria: University of South Africa, 1993).
20 the experience of Mashigo and Masilela.
Criteria for classification are as follows:
1. The types of churches can be classified historically, that is, according to the time when they were established in the township. The establishment of the main types of churches in Atteridgeville16 is in chronological order.
2. Furthermore, classification is done in accordance with the illness and healing discourses offered by a specific cluster of churches.
(1) Classical mainline churches (1.1) History:
In the first category we find the mainline churches that became part of the township since its establishment in the 1940s and 1950s.
These are
• the Roman Catholic Church
• the Anglican Church
• the Baptist Church
• the Dutch Reformed (now Uniting Reformed) and other Reformed Churches
• the Methodist Church
• the Presbyterian Church, and
• the Lutheran Church
Also belonging to this category are churches which came to South Africa as mission churches but which are not considered to be mainline.
These are
• the African Methodist Episcopal Church
16 It is understood here that Atteridgeville also includes Saulsville.
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• the Church of Christ of the Latter Day Saints
• the Kingdom Hall for Jehovah’s Witnesses
• the Moravian Church in South Africa
• Lede in Mica Gemeentes van Suid-Afrika
• Church of the Nazarene
• the Congregational Church
In Atteridgeville, 35 of these churches and their congregations fall within this category.
(1.2) Illness and healing discourses
According to these churches (generalised) 1 illness is caused by
• personal sin (immoral behaviour, not enough commitment, not enough prayer)
• original sin (illness as a natural part of life)
• structural sin (people oppressing one another, government not being Christian enough, poverty, unemployment, racism, cultural practices, secularisation)
• Satan
2 healing is effected through
• praying (some: laying on of hands, holy water, exorcism)
• preaching and believing
• ministerial and congregational support
• pastoral (that is, Biblical) counselling
• hospitals, doctors and medicine
• moral regeneration (also: cultural regeneration)
(2) Classical African churches
(2.1) History
22 These are churches that broke away from the mission/mainline church under African leadership. They were well-established by the 1960s. They, too, have obtained a site from the City Council on which there is a church building. The name of such a church usually has the word “African” in its name.
They are
• African Catholic Church
• Ethiopian Catholic Church in Zion
• Lutheran African Church
• Lutheran Bapedi Church
• St Mary’s African Church
• Tsonga Presbyterian Church*
• (Bantu) Evangelical Church*
• African Orthodox Church*
• New Church Mission in South Africa*
• Old Apostolic Church of Africa*
There are 11 churches in Atteridgeville that are classified in this category.
(2.2) Illness and healing discourses
The illness and healing discourses offered by these churches are more or less in accordance with those of the mainline churches, except for some space given to traditional African practices, such as the acceptance of the influence of ancestors and the help of sangomas, and the calling of the pastor/priest through visions.
1 illness is caused by
• personal sin (unclean lives)
• structural sin (poverty, too few Christians in parliament)
2 healing is effected through
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• laying on of hands and prayer, anointing
• the pastor/priest being called as a healer through a vision
(3) Classical Pentecostal churches (3.1) History
The Classical Pentecostal Churches established themselves during the 1960s, and form our third category.
These include
• Apostolic Faith Mission
• Assemblies of God
• Full Gospel Church of God
• Pentecostal Holiness Church
In Atteridgeville, interviews were done with one or more of each of these churches and their congregations.
(3.2) Illness and healing discourses
1 Illness is caused by
• Satan/the devil
• original sin (“born in sin”)
• personal sin
2 healing is effected through
• praying and speaking directly to God
• laying on of hands
• driving out demons/fighting powers, with doctors
• abstinence, moral life, educational programmes
• pastor with the gift of healing
• preaching salvation, repentance
• hospital ministry
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(4) Zionist/Apostolic churches (4.1) History
These are Zion-type churches (according to Allan Anderson’s definition) which have the words “Zion” or “Apostolic” in their names.
The Zionist and Apostolic churches appeared in the 1970s.
(4.2) Illness and healing discourses
A distinction is made here between churches that heal through praying and the laying on of hands, and churches that heal through traditional African practices.
Zionist/Apostolic churches that heal through praying and laying on of hands
The churches interviewed in this category are:
• Apostolic Gospel Church International
• Bethal Apostolic Church of Christ
• Christian Apostolic Church in Zion
• Christian Catholic Apostolic Church
• Christian Catholic Apostolic Holy Spirit Church in Zion
• Holy Cross Apostolic Church of South Africa
• New Apostolic Church
• St Michael’s Apostolic Faith
• True Zion Congregational Church
• Twelve Apostolic, the New Jerusalem, Holy Spirit Church in Zion
• Zion Apostolic Church
1 illness is caused by
• personal sin (lack of obedience to God, immorality especially drinking and pre-marital sex, people leading double lives)
• punishment from God (eg Aids)
• original sin (natural causes)
• demons
25 2 healing is effected through
• laying on of hands and prayer by pastor with a healing ministry (called through vision)
• driving out of demons
• not through sacrifices or the worshipping of the ancestors
Zionist/Apostolic churches that heal through traditional African practices
The churches interviewed in this category are:
• Bantu Zion Christian Church
• Bethal Apostolic Church in South Africa
• Christian Catholic Apostolic, Holy Spirit Church in Zion
• St Johanna Apostolic Church in South Africa
• St John’s Apostolic Faith Mission Church
• New Testament Apostolic Church
• St Petro Apostolic Church
• The Apostles and Christian Brethren Church of South Africa
• Zion Congregational Church
• Zion Christian Church
1 illness is caused by
• personal sin (alcohol, lack of holiness)
• unhealthy lifestyle (things you eat)
• not having peace with the ancestors
• punishment from God (eg Aids)
• witchcraft
• lack of faith in prophecy and healing
2 healing is effected through
• bird nests (balusi)
• mirror showing who has bewitched, bestolen you
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• candles, Bible, cards, stick
• visions from ancestors and God
• bodily and spiritual cleansing (bathing, vomiting, sacrifices)
• ashes, herbs
• prayer, laying on of hands
(5) Born-again churches (“Bekeerkerke”) (5.1) History
Finally, and in the fifth place, numerous born-again churches were established in Atteridgeville since the 1980s. This is a broad term for recently established churches of which the members claim that they are “born-again”.
Born-again churches that heal through praying and laying on of hands
Churches interviewed in this category are:
• Abundant Life Ministries
• Anthropol Christian Foundation
• Born-again Church of Christ
• Charisma Christian Centre
• Church of Christ Assemblies
• Church of Jesus Christ
• Christ Ministries Church
• Christian Revival Assemblies
• Fire Bible Church
• Forward in Faith Bible Church
• Good News Ministries
• International Assemblies of God
• Maranatha Ministries
• National Independent Congregational Church
• Nazarene Church
• One Way to Heaven Revival Ministry
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• New Revival Church Ministries
• Revival Hour Ministries (1)
• Revival Hour Ministries (2)
• River of Life Temple
• Rock of Ages Ministries
• Shiloh Tabernacle Church
• Signs and Wonders Ministries
• Unchanging Christ Ministries
• United Pentecostal Church
• Universal Church
• Victory Fellowship Church
1 illness is caused by
• devil/demons
• witchcraft
• personal sin (lack of morals especially drinking, smoking, sex)
• lack of repentance, untruth, acting against God’s principles
• not accepting Jesus as Saviour
2 healing is effected through
• pastor feeling your pain/illness physically, identifying it through a “word of wisdom”, prophesying (pastor called to healing ministry through vision)
• preaching salvation, teaching morals, confessing, repentance, forgiveness
• casting out demons (deliverance)
• fasting
• praying and laying on of hands
• not through doctors or sangomas but through the blood of Christ
• Holy Spirit and not muti (yes for herbs)
• social upliftment programmes
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• counselling
Born-again churches that heal through traditional African practices
Churches interviewed in this category are:
• Father, Son and Holy Spirit Church
• Umthunzi woku Phumula Church
• Hafila Ministries
• True Zion Congregational Church of South Africa
1 illness is caused by
• not listening to the ancestors
• evil spirits, demons
• personal sin (unclean lives)
2 healing is effected by
• Bible, candles, water
• muti, robes, herbs, ashes
• vomiting
• fasting, praying
• sacrifice to the ancestors
• counselling
In summary
The leaders and members of churches interviewed on their healing beliefs form an important, albeit secondary, research population to this study. Their descriptions of the causes of illness and healing provide the context within which proposals for a pastoral counselling practice will be made, which will be sensitive towards culture, age, gender, class and religious affiliation.
29 Journeying with stories (1/4)
Three women liberate themselves from their curse
On a particularly busy day at the hospital (that is, on 26 March 2003), Makhokoloso, Motle and Pula agreed to small group counselling in stead of attending individual counselling. It turned out that, although they were experiencing different problems, they offered the same explanation for their misfortunes: they were cursed by a sangoma. The women, incidentally, were devoted Christians, two of them belonging to a born-again church, the other to a mainline church. All three of them are educated and employed.
Makhokoloso’s husband died in a motor car accident. Within his tradition, Makhokoloso’s husband was of royal descent. This allowed him to marry four wives, but he had chosen to marry Makhokoloso only.
Makhokoloso believes that this was the reason why other women had a curse placed on him and her. This was the reason why he died. This is also the reason why men are now not interested in her, they are afraid of her. Makhokoloso belongs to a born-again church, “Conquerors Ministry”. She sleeps with her Bible to protect her against the curse.
Motle has lost her sexual desire. Because of that, her husband has left her. Motle believes that her husband’s girlfriend has placed a spell on her through a sangoma. Proof of this, are the snakes she has found in her yard. She has also found animal excretion (“kak”) in her yard. At night she wakes up with a wetness in her lap, and once with razor blades between her breasts. Motle belongs to the Universal Church. Here she was told that she could drive out the demon by praying and fasting for seven days.
Pula is divorced. She has a boyfriend who comes and goes. He comes, eats, sleeps over - and leaves for an undetermined time. This causes great emotional stress in Pula. Pula believes that a sangoma has placed a spell on her. However, in order to break this spell, she needs the services of another sangoma but she does not have the money to pay for this service. Pula belongs to the Uniting Reformed Church, and bemoans the fact that this church does not want to deal with the spell.
During therapy, the patients’ belief in the sangoma’s curse was not undermined. Their histories were mapped and the instances highlighted when, in the past, they were able to sound a voice stronger than that of the sangoma’s curse, a voice that was based on belief in
30
God’s power.
However, the unique outcomes of this process will not be described here, since these stories are presented here to reflect on the validity of the above analysis of the research population.
The stories of Makhokoloso, Motle and Pula reflects the research population as mainly
• female, middle-aged and black
• educated, but belonging to a low income group
• ardently Christian, but living within the fears and realities of township life
• believing that religious imbalances (curses, demons, spells) are causing their problems, but also believing that there are religious cures for their troubles (such as praying and casting anti-spells).