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development stage and the second level of development as the potential development of the student. It is often stated that the actual level describes development retrospectively, while the potential level describes development prospectively (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Thus, Vygotsky (1978) explains his theory of ZPD as the metaphorical space between these two levels that a student can reduce as his/her learning capacities develop, provided the appropriate mediational tools are available. In Vygotsky’s own words, the ZPD includes the, “… distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Based on this definition, the most essential concept of the ZPD appears to be the emphasis placed on what has previously been developed and what has the potential to develop, when given the appropriate mediational support. Ultimately, the ZPD presents, “… those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic stage” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Furthermore, evidenced in Vygotsky’s excerpt, a particular emphasis is placed on the critical role of the human mediator (i.e. the MKO) in facilitating the development between the two planes.

The Vygotskian ZPD construct asserts that development arises through collabora- tive mediation, whereby the MKO (i.e. a teacher) interacts and provides guided assistance to a novice (i.e. a student), which in turn, is expected to enable the student to better per- form the task at hand (Ellis & Shintani, 2014). As this occurs, both the MKO and the stu- dent co-construct a metaphorical site, the ZPD. The collaborative work of both parties ena- bles the MKO to identify students’ emerging capacities, which in turn enables the teacher to establish optimal learning conditions. Thus, Vygotsky maintains that effective instruc- tion within students’ ZPD should be directed at activities that the students cannot achieve independently, but can, instead, perform through collaborative means with others (Rassaei, 2017). From this perspective, Vygotsky (1984, p. 3) affirmed that effective instructional approaches are required to proceed beyond development and should be aimed towards a student’s potential ability which lies within the co-constructed ZPD. Such a practice is

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proposed to ensure the awakening of the higher order functioning of a student (Lantolf, 2011).

Researchers in the field of SLA and more specifically the field of CF (i.e. Aljaafreh & Lantolf (1994), Lantolf et al. (2015) and Lantolf & Poehner (2010)) regularly utilise the Vygotskian concept of ZPD, to conceptualise the process of SLA and overall L2 develop- ment. Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) note three “mechanisms of effective intervention with- in the ZPD” (p. 468), which are crucial in co-establishing a student’s ZPD to enhance SLA. Firstly, as a student’s ZPD is dynamic in nature, Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) recommend the progression of the ZPD to be gradual, based on the developing linguistic capacities of the student. As Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994, p. 468) state, “The purpose here is to estimate the minimal level of guidance required by the novice to successfully perform the given task”. It is advised, from this perspective, that aid should initially be provided through im- plicit and general strategies in order to fully detect the ability of the student, and then pro- gress to more specific strategies until the appropriate level of guidance required by the stu- dent is discovered. Secondly, assisted guidance (i.e. forms of mediational support) should be provided contingently to the student in accordance with their specific needs. It is strong- ly emphasised that any form of mediation provided should readily reduce (fade) as the stu- dent acquires competency in the desired linguistic skill. Thirdly, the authors emphasise the importance of ensuring that the ZPD is dialogic in nature and that it is co-constructed through mediated interactions between the student and the MKO. Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994, p. 468) stress that, “… without dialogic negotiation, it is virtually impossible to dis- cover the novice’s ZPD”. The concept of ZPD appreciates the importance of collaborative mediation in shaping what has been learned (Gass & Selinker, 2008); in other words, the social nature of the language learning process. Research suggests that availing of the three mechanisms of effective intervention explored in this section may ensure consistent growth and development over time, which is crucial (e.g. Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994). It is im- portant to note, however, that over or under providing assistance to a student may affect the students’ capacity to progress through their ZPD (Lantolf et al., 2015), which may hin- der a student’s L2 development process. Therefore, establishing and maintaining appropri- ate ZPD requires continuous assessment of the student’s emerging capacities.

In summary, ZPD does not occupy a fixed stance; it needs an open-ended perspec- tive from both sides (i.e. MKO and student), which develops through mediated interaction, and which supports language learning and subsequent language development (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Swain, 2000). Holzman (2016) suggests that ZPD is more usefully under-

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stood as a process rather than a fixed state, “… an activity rather than an actual zone, space or distance” (p. 29). ZPD is understood as a metaphorical explanation to underscore the current ability of a student and their potential ability. Vygotsky’s concept of assisted learn- ing is more commonly referred to by sociocultural theorists as scaffolding.

2.5.3. Scaffolding. To bring a student to his/her ZPD requires the provision of a