Comprensión de la Organización y su Contexto

supply, natural resources and the climate in the two countries. Analysing these conditions provides an overview of the role of fossil fuels as well as nuclear energy, two important issues for the climate change discussions. It might, moreover, show what is perceived as normal and abnormal climate.

Comparing the energy supply of Germany and Australia (see Figure 4), AGEB (2016) for Germany and AER (editions 2007-2012) for Australia provide the following information: It is clear that the diversification of energy sources is much more diverse in Germany than in Australia. The amount of nuclear energy was reduced sharply in 2011, the year after the nuclear catastrophe in Fukushima, whereas the amount of renewable energy increased in the same year and the year after. Nevertheless, fossil fuels (brown coal, black coal and natural gas) are still the main energy sources for Germany.

3 Theory: The Extended Sphere Model of Bräuer and Wolling (2014) 85

Figure 4: Comparison of energy supply in Germany and Australia by source for the years 2007 to 2012

Sources: AGEB – AG Energiebilanzen e. V., Stromerzeugung nach Energieträgern 1990-2015, and AER 2007-2012, Registered generation capacity, by fuel source, State of the energy market 2007-2012

24,2 19,0 23,6 13,8 19,0 14,5 18,0 15,9 20,0 16,6 20,0 20,2 20,0

22,8

liquid fuels renewable energies (wind, water, solar)

others

86 3 Theory: The Extended Sphere Model of Bräuer and Wolling (2014)

It is conspicuous that nuclear energy is not part of the Australian energy mix. The country relies on black and brown coal. The amount of renewable energy is more or less stable, while the use of natural gas declined during the research period.

Looking at natural resources with a focus on resources for energy generation (Figure 5), volumes of brown coal as well as nuclear and renewable energy are sufficient in Germany, while energy production based on black coal, natural gas, and especially liquid fuels are mainly dependent on imports (BGR’s Energiestudie 2013). In this context, BGR (2013) pro-vides information about the proportional distribution of the energy mix, with liquid fuels having a 33 per cent share of Germany’s energy mix, natural gas a 21 per cent share, brown coal and black coal each having a 12 per cent share, while energy from renewables had a 12 per cent share and nuclear power a 8 per cent share (p. 15).

Figure 5: German resources for energy generation

Source: BGR – Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Energiestudie 2013, p. 15 1,0

2002 2012 2002 2012 2002 2012 2002 2012 2002 2012 2002 2012

primary energy megaton hard coal unit

Achsentitel

import own production

brown coal black coal natural gas nuclear renewable liquid fuels energy energy

3 Theory: The Extended Sphere Model of Bräuer and Wolling (2014) 87

In 2012, primary energy consumption – i. e. energy that has not been subjected to any con-version or transformation process, including oil, coal, natural gas, water and nuclear energy as well as renewable energy – in kilograms of oil equivalent per capita (one oil equivalent is 41.868 mega joule) was 3.88 per head in Germany (The World Bank 2018).

Australia’s energy generation is substantially based on coal which is produced domestically:

the country earns AUD 38 billion from the export of 392 megatons of coal and is the second largest coal exporter after Indonesia (Energy in Australia 2013, p. 67).Based on the study Energy in Australia (2013), natural gas is mainly renewable and bioenergy is only produced for own use. The volume of renewable and bioenergy produced is, however, very small.

Liquified petroleum gas and refined products are imported for energy generation (see Figure 6) (Energy in Australia 2013, p. 4). The energy mix consists of black and brown coal (35 per cent), oil (36 per cent), natural gas (25 per cent) and renewables (4 per cent) (Energy in Australia 2013, p. 4).

Figure 6: Australian resources used for energy generation in 2012

Source: Energy in Australia 2013, pp. 21 f.

261,0 1229,3 667,9

9941,4

2094,8 915,6 3322,4

137,6 27,2 0,0

1000,0 2000,0 3000,0 4000,0 5000,0 6000,0 7000,0 8000,0 9000,0 10000,0

coal natural gascrude oil and ORFnuclear energyrefined productsrenewable energy (wind, solar, hydro)liquid/gas biofuels

primary energy megaton hard coal unit

import domestic production

coal natural gas crude oil nuclear refined renewable liquid/gas

and ORF energy products energy* biofuel

*wind, solar, hydro

88 3 Theory: The Extended Sphere Model of Bräuer and Wolling (2014)

In 2012, the primary energy consumption – i. e. energy that has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process, including oil, coal, natural gas, water and nuclear en-ergy as well as renewable enen-ergy – in kilograms of oil equivalent per capita (one oil equiv-alent is 41.868 mega joule) was 5.58 per head, in Australia (The World Bank 2018).

Reviewing the climate in both countries, the situation in Germany was more or less stable for a long time, with reliable climate and weather conditions; extreme weather, such as heavy rainfall, was not part of German everyday life (Germanwatch 2007, p. 4). The situation, however, has since changed. The Deutsche Wetterdienst (DWD) has predicted that Germany is likely to experience the following changes relating to climate until 2050: in the summer-time, temperatures will increase by about 1.5 °C to 2.5 °C in comparison to 1990 and during winter time, temperatures will be between 1.5 °C and 3 °C hotter; there will be less rainfall (about 40 per cent) in summer whereas in winter the rainfall will increase by about 30 per cent (DWD 2016). Over the last 100 years, temperatures increased by 0.8 to 1.0 degree Cel-sius, rainfall increased in winter and, there was simultaneously, less snow (Germanwatch 2007, p. 4). Extreme climate events, such as heat waves, heavy rainfall, and squalls, have increased over the last 20 years (Germanwatch 2007, p. 4).

The prediction is that increases in temperature as well as the changes in rainfall will be re-flected in the environment and the daily routine of Germany’s population (Germanwatch 2007, p. 8). Because nature will react with longer vegetation periods and changes in biolog-ical diversity, human beings need to expect extended allergy cycles as well as heat waves, which can cause large numbers of deaths (Germanwatch 2007, p. 8). Increases in tempera-ture and heavy rainfall, in addition, will confront the German population with serious effects on the ecosystem as well as socio-economic processes due to sea-level rise, extreme weather glacier meltdown and floods (Germanwatch 2007, p. 8).

Australia's climate is dominated by dry, sinking air from the subtropical high-pressure belt, which moves north and south with the seasons and makes the rainfall pattern over Australia strongly seasonal (Australian Bureau of Meteorology 2014). Australia’s climate has warmed by 0.9 °C since 1910, and the frequency of extreme weather has changed, with more extreme heat, fewer cool periods and reduced rainfall, especially in the southwest, where there is reduced winter rainfall (Australian Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO 2014, p. 3). Extreme heat has increased, resulting in an extended fire season (Australian Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO 2014, p. 3). Low rainfall combined with very high evaporation (particularly in inland Australia) leads to low surface water flows and seasonal river systems (Australian Bureau of Meteorology 2014).

3 Theory: The Extended Sphere Model of Bräuer and Wolling (2014) 89

Australian temperatures are projected to continue to rise: by 2070, compared to 1980 to 1999, warming is projected to be 1.0 to 2.5 °C for low greenhouse gas emissions and 2.2 to 5.0 °C for high emissions (Australian Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO 2014, p. 15). The Aus-tralian population will, thus, need to contend with a growing number of extreme fire-weather days in Southern and Eastern Australia on average, an increased proportion of intense cy-clones and sea-level rise around the Australian coastline; higher mean sea levels will increase the frequency of extreme sea-level events (Australian Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO 2014, p. 15).

Summarising this section about energy supply, natural resources used for energy genera-tion, and climate, Germany uses less fossil fuels than Australia, due to a wider range of energy sources. Nuclear power is part of Germany’s energy mix, whereas Australia does not use nuclear power at all. Germany produces energy domestically from brown coal, nuclear and renewable energies. In Australia, renewable and bioenergy is exclusively produced within the country alongside natural gas. However, this production is at a very low level.

Australia’s energy comes mainly from coal. The coal industry plays a major role in Aus-tralia’s economy. Australia is a leading exporter of coal. This is why the switch from coal to renewable energy for energy production is a massive challenge.

The climate in Germany will include hotter summers and winters, less rainfall in summer, and more rainfall in winter by 2050. The consequences of climate change are expected to be longer vegetation periods, changes to biological diversity, seal-level rise, extreme weather, glacier meltdown and floods. In addition, humans need to expect extended allergy cycles and more frequent heat waves, which can cause large numbers of deaths. The climate in Australia has warmed, resulting in extreme heat, fewer cool periods, reduced rainfall and extreme fire-weather conditions. Moreover, Australia already has low surface water flows and seasonal river systems. In future, Australia will face a growing number of extreme fire-weather days and intense cyclones as well as extreme sea-level events (see Table 7).

For the climate change coverage which is surveyed in this research, these results lead to the expectation that, on the one hand, Australian newspapers will have a larger number of reports about the effects of climate change, because the lifestyle of the people is already being af-fected by these effects, and it may include more calls for action in terms of climate change.

German climate change coverage, on the other hand, is likely to become more diverse, re-ferring to the problems of climate change, the causes as well as the effects of climate change, responsibilities and calls for action in terms of climate change.

90 3 Theory: The Extended Sphere Model of Bräuer and Wolling (2014)

Table 7: Sphere of structural conditions: energy supply, resources, and climate in Germany and Australia

Aspect of energy supply,

re-sources and climate Germany Australia

Energy supply mainly based on

coal and oil/liquid fuels Moderate (57 % of the energy mix)

High (71 % of the energy mix) The coal industry is a major

eco-nomic force Moderate High

Use of nuclear power Moderate (8 % of the energy mix)

None

Increase in renewable energy

within 5 years High (plus 65 %) Extremely low (plus 5 %)

Production of renewable energy Moderate

(22.8 % of electricity is generated from renewables)

Moderate

(20 % of electricity is generated from renewables)

Consequences of climate change (for example, hotter summers and winters, less rainfall in sum-mer, extreme heat, extreme fire-weather conditions, low surface water flows)

Low (expectations of scientists for 2050 are introduced)

consequences of climate change Extremely high

(expected: longer vegetation pe-riods, changes to biological di-versity, sea-level rise, extreme weather, glacier meltdown and floods, extended allergy cycles and frequent heat waves which can cause large numbers of deaths)

Extremely high

(expected: a growing number of extreme fire-weather days, in-creased frequency of intense cy-clones and extreme sea-level events)