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The site is located on a farmer’s field about 10 kilometres north of Trondheim. The site was excavated in the summer of 2010 by Preben Rønne of the Vitenskapsmuseet, University of Trondheim (details below are from the unpublished excavation report Rønne 2010, used with permission). This rescue excavation was done in preparation for the construction of a housing complex. This site is generally recognized as the only pre-Christian cult-house discovered in Norway. It consisted of a processional way demarcated by two parallel rows of stones. This way ended at a timber structure. A circular collection of burned rocks existed at the site (Fig. 132). Dating evidence, both radio-carbon dating, as well as material evidence in the cultural layer,

suggest the site was used from c. AD 400-c.1000. The cultural layer in the stratigraphy implied it was used continuously.

The central mound of burned rocks was identified by the excavator as a hörgr. This ritual indicator consists of a circular stone setting, approximately 15 metres in diameter and about a metre high. The pile was made up of heated stones with animal blood upon them. Under the

hörgr was a burial from AD 400. Other items discovered included a piece of a skull, and several

human teeth placed in the centre of the hörgr. Glass beads and two ritually bent axes were discovered as well.

A partial stone wall on both sides of a path ending at the cult-house was interpreted as a processional way. This timber structure was 5.3 x 4.5 metres (Fig. 133). There were 12 staves, each placed in a stone filled hole. Inside the building was found four postholes in a square. This is assumed to have been evidence of a ‘high-seat’ or plinth. It is suggested that this was a place where idols, possibly in the form of carved poles, were placed. The ritual nature of the building was assumed because the building has no evidence of domestic usage in the form rubbish in the floor, nor did it contain a hearth. A reconstruction can be seen in Fig. 134.

The site remained in use until about the year 1000. Historical evidence shows that the Trondheim area was forced into Christianity by King Olaf Tryggvason. As evidenced by the saga details, many people emigrated at this point, and the site itself suggests this. Each of the posts of the timber cult-house were pulled up and removed. This methodology is supported by saga evidence (such as that done by Thorolf Moster-Beard in the Saga of the Eyri, section 4, Q:66). The hörgr was carefully covered with sand and clay, suggesting to the excavator a ‘ritual’ burial.

To summarise, Gudehovet presents the rare case of an excavated cult-house in Norway. It lies at the end of a processional way, near both a hörgr and the remains of a hall. The cult-house is a rectangular post-built structure, with the remains of a possible plinth or table for deity imagery inside it.

Borg (Östergötland, Sweden)

The site is located in Borg, west of the medieval town of Norrköping, in Östergötland, Sweden. The 7th-century site is located on a ridge overlooking the area, and is next to a medieval royal

manor (Nielsen 1997: 375). Borg demonstrates a number of the characteristics expected of a central place. It is a large site consisting of several buildings close to a central area (Fig. 135). The buildings have specialized functions with nearby farmsteads. The site contains a cultic building that presents an example of a structure associated with a royal chieftain’s manor (Nielsen, 1997: 374-5). The association of royalty and religion in central places is well attested both archaeologically and via Icelandic sources, this plays a role in central places as they are seen in Scandinavia. Hus 5 is the cult-house (Fig. 136). The buildings around the cult-house appear to have been related to metal working; slag, whetstones, and blast nozzles suggest this (Nielsen 1997: 379). Likely, there were workshops dedicated to the production of votive offerings (in this case, fire-strikers).

There were many items found that suggest cultic usage of the site. In a paved area outside the grouping of houses was discovered about 75 kg of unburned bones (Nielsen 1997: 384). This was composed of sheep, pigs, and cattle. An examination of this showed a large proportion of skulls and jawbones versus the meatier section of an animal. This suggested that this was not ordinary food refuse but was related to meals connected to sacrifices. Horse and dog skulls were discovered in another area. At least ten dog skulls were discovered. This is considered important because dog burials are often associated with royalty (Neilsen 1997: 385). 98 ‘Amulet Rings’ in the shape of fire-striker shaped rings were discovered wedged in the pavement just west of the cult building. These often had charms attached to them. These charms were in the shape of Thor’s hammers, sickles (believed to be a fertility symbol related to Frey, Gräslund 2008: 255), spears (believe related to Odin, Gräslund 2008: 254) rings and others. This was one of the largest discoveries of these artefacts in Sweden (details from Nielsen 1997: 381-4).

The pig bones recovered presented an anomaly. Adult pigs’ teeth can be sexed. The adult male mandible has “tusk-like” canines, the sow does not (Davis 1987: 44). It was discovered that, with only one exception, all of the pigs teeth discovered near the amulet rings were from sows.

Nielsen (1997: 385) interprets this as suggesting that this area was dedicated to Freya, who was associated with a sow (Nielsen 1997: 385). Frey has been associated with fire-strikers in other contexts (Gräslund 2008: 254). Boars are associated most clearly with Freya (one of whose names is recorded as Sýr- sow). However, both deities are associated in Icelandic sources with

boars (Frey has a boar Gullinborsti and Freya has Hildisvíni). This suggested to the archaeologists a cult-house dedicated to both Freya and Frey.

The cult-house building was located on a large (1000 metres square) paved yard. It was about 6 x 7.5 metres. It was orientated north-south, with an entrance on the west side (Fig. 137). The house was built on stone sills, the imprint of the walls is suggested to reflect notched corner joints. The building had two rooms separated down the middle with some small sill stones demonstrating where an interior wall-plate divided the building. The rooms were nearly equal size (the north room was slightly smaller). The floor of the cult-house was paved with rounded stones. The excavators found some flat stones along the eastern wall which they suggest may have been a plinth for a collection of idols (details above summarised from Nielsen 1997: 381). Although it must be noted that this is conjectural. Several literary sources suggest this usage, but no

surviving plinth with or without idols has been recovered in any Norse excavation at this point in time. Their conclusion was likely based on the 98 iron amulets that were recovered next to it (Nielsen 1997: 381).

In summary, the cult-house structure was built on a paved courtyard. It was a rectangular structure, built on a stone base. It had potential evidence in it for what was interpreted by the excavators as a plinth for deity figures. The building was divided down the centre by a wall. There was evidence both inside and outside the building of sacrificial remains. Most of these (amulets with fire-strikers and extensive pig bones) appear to be related to Frey and Freya as presented in the Old Norse/Icelandic source

Uppåkra (Staffanstorp, Skane, Sweden),

Uppåkra is located about 5 kilometres south of Lund. It is situated on a rise that overlooks the plain of Lund. There have been a number of excavations at this site (Fig. 138). As early as 1934 the importance of the site was realised and excavations were started (excavations detailed in Vifot 1936). The excavations revealing the ‘enigmatic house’ (the term is from Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 3) were done from 2001-2004 (Fig. 139). This excavation represents the most extensive and well documented cult-house found to date (Larsson 2006: 248-53).

The yard surrounding the cult building was ‘littered’ with an abundance of fire cracked stones (Larsson 2004: 6). It would not be out of place to suggest a hörgr in these scattered remains. A

collection of 136 bent lances and spearheads (interpreted as sacrificially ‘broken’) were

recovered just north of the cult-house building (Helgesson 2004: 224, 237). These weapons are from different ages suggesting a long occupation (Helgesson 2004: 229 provides a chart detailing dating and typology). A smaller collection was found south of the building. Mixed in with the weapons deposits were human and animal remains. Radio-carbon dating suggested these individuals were sacrificed in the 6-7th centuries (Larsson 2007: 19). One hundred and twenty- two guldgubber were recovered at the site (Watt 2004: 170). This was the second largest

discovery of these figures in Scandinavia (Watt 2004: 169). Interestingly, several guldgubber are similar to examples from Ravlunda (eastern Skåne, Sweden) and one is die-identical to an

example from Sorte Muld, Bornholm in Denmark (Watt 2004: 184). A number of high-status items were also discovered on site. This includes a decorative 6th-century beaker (analysed in Hårdh 2004: 49-92), a unique carved 6th-century glass bowl (documented in Stjernquist 2004: 103-49) as well as other evidence of high-status glass beakers. A rare figurine of Odin was recovered as well (Fig. 140).

The cult-house was a high-timbered stave built structure that had been built and rebuilt in seven major stages (Fig. 141-142). Each construction closely maintained the original building plan and similar palisade stave construction (Larsson 2006: 249; Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 9). Artefact and pot sherd evidence found in the fill, date the site from the Pre-Roman Iron period up to the Viking Age (Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 12-8). The first structure was likely built, based on artefactual evidence, in the 3rd century (Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 16-7). It was 13.5 metres and 6 metres wide with slightly convex walls and straight gables. There were three entrances, one on the north, and two on the south. The south-west entrance has what appeared to be an entrance structure associated with it (Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 6, 17). Four large and deep interior postholes held staves that supported the roof. These postholes were 4x2 metres and at least 1.7 metres in depth (Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 9). This type of structure, deep postholes supporting a high roof and concave walls, with the exception of its smaller size, is generally similar to what is seen in halls. It was completely rebuilt, on a similar floorplan, at least three times (Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 14). The postholes also contained apparent ritually deposited items. The north-west posthole contained a cow cranium, and an iron door ring (Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 14). All of the central postholes contained guldgubber as did the wall trench. In the centre of the building were the remains of a hearth (Larsson 2007: 13).

The final phase of the stave structure is similar to that seen in Gudehovet. To all appearances the building was ritually closed. The poles were pulled out of the ground, the clay floor dug up, and the entire building filled in (Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 14-5). Dating of this event is via an Arabic dirham (coined by Caliph al Mansur between 771-755) and a two Viking Age combs found in the fill, placing this at the beginning of the Viking Age (Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 15). It has been conjectured that this structure went out of use with the construction of the nearby church (Larsson and Lenntorp 2004: 42).

In summary, the cult-house was rebuilt several times, over five centuries, each time maintaining in the original building plan. This is a one-room structure, however it is built on a hall plan with deep and large interior postholes, implying a two-story structure. The walls were bowed, and the general plan recalls a small hall-like structure. The central postholes contained guldgubber and other apparent ritual depositional items. Broken spears were found nearby, all from different ages, implying long term usage over centuries. The building went out of use in the Viking Age, and was pulled out of the ground and the entire area filled in.

Tissø (Sjælland, Kalundborg, Denmark).

The site is located on the western bank of Lake Tissø in West Zealand, Denmark (Fig. 143). The name likely contains the theophoric element for Tyr and means Tyr’s Lake (Jørgensen 2012: 77). This may account for the numerous Viking era weapons and tools found during periods of

drought since the 19th century. The Tissø site is an example of a central place site. This is

considered one of the most important (both in size, duration and occupation as well as variety of finds) sites to date in Scandinavia. This large site (about 50 hectares) is ideally placed, being both on the shore of Lake Tissø, but also near the river Halleby, which provided access to the inland waterways. It is a large area (about 50 hectares) with a 400-year occupation history beginning in the early 7th century (Jørgensen 2012: 77).

The site was extensively excavated between 1995 and 2003 by Lars Jørgensen under the auspices of the Danish National Museum and the Kalundborg Museum (documented mainly in Jørgensen 2003 and 2012). Eighty-five thousand square metres of the settlement was exposed with more than 11,000 artefacts discovered. Dating demonstrates that the site was continuously occupied from the middle of the 6th century to the first half of the 11th century (Fig. 144). Of specific

interest to this study, are the hall, manor, and associated cult building. In brief, the excavations showed a 6th-century complex with two halls (this is the site at Bulbrogård). The initial halls were burned to the ground in the first half of the 7th century. A second complex (Fugledegård) was created south of the original site in c. AD 700. A manor, and cult building with an enclosed perimeter were all built together at this time (Fig. 145). There was nothing found in the manor, or around it to suggest agricultural activity. This is highly unusual for what is expected in an

agricultural compound. This suggested to the archaeologists that this was temporary residence employed by a mobile monarchy. This site was abandoned in the 11th _{century (details above}

from Jørgensen 2012: 77-82).

The identification of the site as a cultic area is based on a number of finds. The manor had an unusually large quantity of amulets and jewellery. These artefacts were decorated with motifs that appear to have been taken from Norse mythology. Extensive finds of weapons, gold, and silver offerings (including a 1.8 kg gold neck ring) found in the nearby lake also insinuate the manor’s involvement in cultic activities (Jørgensen 2012: 79). Besides these ritual depositions in the lake and the manor, the hall and cult-house complex contained a number of other material remains interpreted as being associated with ritual activities. A pile of heated stones (hörgr) was located just northwest of the hall, and depositional burials of animal bones, fire strikers, and sickles deposited nearby. It is worth reiterating that fire strikers and sickles are often associated with Frey. The cult-house shares many similarities to Uppåkra. The floor plan is similar (convex walls surrounding four deep postholes), it is placed near a hall, and has weapons depositions associated with it (Fig. 146).

Conclusion:

Archaeological and literary evidence both suggest sacred landscapes were common in the Viking cultic world. Both lines of evidence also suggest ritual buildings were used. The literary evidence strongly supports the existence of pre-Christian cult-houses and provides data suggesting what was done in those houses, as well as information related to outdoor cultic activities. This appears to be confirmed by the archaeological evidence of pre-Christian cult-houses although there are digressions and differences. The excavation and literary evidence concur that there was a class of dedicated structures used for ritual activities. It is clear from these selected excavated sites that cult-houses served ritual functions in the late Iron Age and Viking societies. These are often part

of larger complexes, such as seen at Lunda and Uppåkra. Notably, votive deposits, are in evidence at these sites and usually directly associated with these cult-houses. The items

deposited can often, using Old Norse/Icelandic source data cautiously, be identified with specific deities. Although the sample size is small, what can be said is that cult-houses are usually one room affairs, based on either common rectangular domestic structures, or similarly sized hall like structures, and often placed next to a hall.