Concepto y Alcance del Marketing Relacional

CHORUS 1 (BILLIE HOLIDAY, VOCAL)

A 0:08 “A sailboat in the moonlight . . .”

A 0:24 “A soft breeze on a June night . . .”

B 0:40 “A chance to sail away . . .”

A 0:57 “Th e things, dear . . .”

CHORUS 2

A 1:12 James Sherman, piano

A 1:28

B 1:44 Buck Clayton, trumpet

A 2:00 Lester Young, tenor saxophone

CHORUS 3 (abbreviated)

B 2:16 “A chance to sail away . . .”

A 2:32 “Th e things, dear . . .”

From 1926 on, jazz musicians added their artistry to popular songs, as you will hear later in the book in such pieces as Lester Young’s “Oh! Lady Be Good,” Benny Goodman’s “Dinah,” Coleman Hawkins’s “Body and Soul,”

and Art Tatum’s “Over the Rainbow.” In each case, familiarity with the mel-ody gives the listener a convenient way to enter the performance. Once the cycle has been fi rmly established, the remainder of each tune fi ts securely into the thirty-two-bar A A B A form.

Musicians may sometimes adopt a popular song without the melody.

Probably the most commonly used popular song in jazz is “I Got Rhythm,”

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THIRTY-TWO-BAR POP SONG FORM: A A B A ■ 39

written in 1930 by George Gershwin and his lyric-writing brother Ira for the Broadway show Girl Crazy. Jazz musicians loved the harmonic progression, but were disinclined to play the actual melody—the only part of the song (along with the lyrics) covered by copyright. Th ey simply concentrated on the chords. Instead of “I Got Rhythm,” they played what they referred to as rhythm changes—changes being a slang word for a harmonic progression.

Th ey also altered the form slightly: as composed by the Gershwins, “I Got Rhythm” includes a fi nal two-bar tag, making thirty-four measures. Th ese two bars were rejected by jazz musicians, who preferred the symmetry of the thirty-two-bar form. Having stripped the tune to its essentials, musicians fashioned thousands of melodies and altered the chord progressions to their taste. Some of these spin-off s, such as Duke Ellington’s “Conga Brava” and Th elonious Monk’s cleverly named “Rhythm-a-ning,” became jazz standards in their own right.

Jazz musicians routinely use the A A B A form to create original composi-tions. One of the most famous is Miles Davis’s “So What,” one of hundreds of jazz-generated thirty-two-bar A A B A tunes that are known as jazz stan-dards. Th e head, as we have seen, is a bass line in call and response with a simple two-note riff . Since the riff is short, to fi ll out eight-bars it must be repeated three times. Once you have adjusted to the eight-bar unit, the overall form becomes clear.

At the bridge, there is a subtle but signifi cant diff erence: the riff moves up a half step to a new key. Listen for this modulation, as well as the return to the original key in the fi nal A section. Once you learn to notice the half-step change, you should have no diffi culty following the choruses of “So What”

(the fi rst fi ve are given here).

Singer Billie Holiday and tenor saxophonist Lester Young (to her right) were close colleagues from the 1930s, when they recorded tunes like “A Sailboat in the Moonlight.” They hadn’t seen each other in years when they appeared on a live televi-sion show in December 1957, along with tenor saxophonist Coleman Hawkins (in hat) and baritone saxophonist Gerry Mulligan. It was to be their last encounter.

CBS/LANDOV

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40 ■ CHAPTER 2 JAZZ FORM AND IMPROVISATION

Listen also to how Miles Davis on trumpet and John Coltrane on tenor saxophone negotiate the form according to their own style: Davis with sim-ple, taut phrases, Coltrane with lengthy gusts of notes. You can usually hear the bridge, the only point of contrast, when the pianist plays the appropriate chord. Pay particular attention to the bridge of Davis’s second chorus (2:56), when the trumpet signals the change with a sudden, forceful note.

“So What”

(CD1, track 7)

CHORUS 1 (HEAD)

A 0:34

A 0:49

B 1:03

A 1:17

CHORUS 2 (MILES DAVIS, TRUMPET)

A 1:31

A 1:45

B 1:59

A 2:14

CHORUS 3

A 2:28

A 2:42

B 2:56

A 3:10

CHORUS 4 (JOHN COLTRANE, TENOR SAXOPHONE)

A 3:24

A 3:38

B 3:52

A 4:06

CHORUS 5

A 4:20

A 4:33

B 4:47

A 5:01

Th ere are many other examples in this book of thirty-two-bar A A B A form, each with its own chord progression. Some borrow that progression from an existing tune: Charlie Parker’s “Ko-Ko,” for example, is based on the 1939 pop song “Cherokee.” Consult the appropriate Listening Guide for more details.

“Blue Lou,” Fletcher Henderson (p. 176)

“Tempus Fugue-It,” Bud Powell (p. 299)

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IMPROVISATION ■ 41

“Ko-Ko,” Charlie Parker (p. 289)

“Walkin’ and Swingin’,” Andy Kirk with Mary Lou Williams (p. 202)

“Christopher Columbus,” Fats Waller (p. 258)

“Dinah,” Benny Goodman Quartet (p. 180)

A B A C (A A!) Form

Other tunes in this book could be diagrammed a diff erent way: A B A C, or A A!, an elegant variation on A A B A form. While A A B A adds contrast (with the bridge) precisely halfway through the song, A B A C uses that same location to return to the opening melody.

A (8 bars) statement B (8 bars) contrast

A (8 bars) return of statement C (8 bars) conclusion

It’s possible to think of this same form as two sixteen-bar sections, the fi rst ending with a half cadence, and the second steering the harmony fi rmly home with a full cadence:

A (16 bars) statement

A! (16 bars) statement with new conclusion

Tunes that fall into this form include standard pop songs like “Star Dust”

and “Embraceable You,” but also original compositions from early New Or-leans jazz to the most modern styles. As with A A B A, the A B A C form is a template, fi lled in by diff erent harmonic progressions; but you can always recognize it by its characteristic feature—the return of the opening melody halfway through the song.

“Singin’ the Blues,” Bix Beiderbecke (p. 153)

“Hotter Th an Th at,” Louis Armstrong (p. 146)

“One Hour,” Mound City Blue Blowers (p. 156)

“Star Dust,” Artie Shaw (p. 185)

“Embraceable You,” Charlie Parker (p. 291)

“ESP,” Miles Davis (p. 395)

“Twisted Blues,” Wes Montgomery (p. 339)

IMPROVISATION

How can music that’s made up on the spot still make sense? How do musi-cians manage to keep together? In short, what is improvisation? To answer, we can start with the rhythm section, where each instrument fi lls multiple roles.

Th e bass has the most restricted role. Rhythmically, it is a foundation layer, keeping steady time in a swing groove with a continuous and even string of notes. Because this sound is the neutral backdrop against which every rhyth-mic gesture is heard, the bassist has little choice but to stick to the basic

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42 ■ CHAPTER 2 JAZZ FORM AND IMPROVISATION

pattern. But at the same time, the bass plays a crucial harmonic role.

Each time a new chord appears on the chart (the musical score that serves as the basis for jazz performance), the bass is responsible for playing that chord’s root. Th us, the bass has a daunting challenge: a steady and consistent beat, fi tting into a harmonic puzzle. Today’s bassists do this with ease. Th e sound of the bass line, marking four even beats to the bar, is known as a walking bass, and it is an es-sential ingredient for most jazz performances.

During Miles Davis’s solo on “So What” (1:31–3:24), Paul Chambers’s bass line lies underneath the solo, never calling atten-tion to itself and never failing to fulfi ll its basic rhythmic and har-monic duties. Yet the line has a graceful melodic shape, controlled by Chambers’s creative imagination. A good bass line is a subtle form of improvisation, constantly supporting and sometimes inspir-ing the soloist. An experienced bassist can choose from the available possibilities at a split second’s notice.

Sometimes the bass line does not move: we call this a pedal point. Th e term derives from pipe organs, where the lowest pipes are sounded on a pedal keyboard played with the feet. During an improvisation, an organist can sim-ply hold down a pedal for an extended period of time, allowing the chords to drift on top of this foundation. In jazz, pedal points can occur whenever the bass refuses to move. Listen, for instance, to how the bassist in Ronald Shannon Jackson’s “Now’s the Time” (1:47–1:55) freezes the harmony for a full eight bars.

Th e patterns bassists play in Latin or funk may be more syncopated and complex, while still serving as a rhythmic foundation. At the opening to Dizzy Gillespie’s “Manteca” (0:00–0:30), the bassist repeats a short two-measure riff while the horns add sharply contrasting layers of polyrhythm. In John Coltrane’s “Acknowledgement” (starting at 0:32), the bass is the only stable element in the ensemble. Few people notice the bass or give it credit, but it is the rock on which most of jazz stands.

Th e primary harmony instrument in the rhythm section—usually a piano, but sometimes guitar, organ, vibraphone, or electric keyboards—has a diff er-ent role. Every chart specifi es the chords that must be played, with a musical shorthand: Cmaj7, for example, means a C major triad with a major seventh, B, added. But exactly how the chords are to be played is left open. At any given moment, the pianist can play the chord in any voicing (arrangement) or add extensions (extra notes). He or she can also use harmonic substitu-tions—harmonies that replace the existing chord progression. Compare, for example, the fi rst chorus of “West End Blues” (0:16–0:50) with the fourth chorus (1:59–2:32). In the fi rst, the pianist, Earl Hines, sticks to the script, playing simple chords on the beat. By the fourth chorus, where he is the fea-tured soloist, he replaces these chords with a dense harmonic thicket, carving his own path through the blues form with his knowledge of harmony.

Finally, while the bass is a rhythmic foundation, the piano, a variable layer, constantly changes its rhythms to enliven the groove. Th e pianist listens closely to the rhythmic gestures of the drummer while “feeding” chords to the soloist. Th is irregular, unpredictable manner of playing chords is known as comping—jazz slang that derives from the word “accompanying.”

In a typical swing groove, the drummer will play a more or less constant pattern (known as the ride pattern) with his right hand, while accenting the

Paul Chambers, seen here in 1956, was the foundation of the Miles Davis rhythm section in the 1950s, and a bassist in demand for hundreds of record-ing sessions.

MOSAIC IMAGES/FRANCIS WOLFF

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IMPROVISATION ■ 43

backbeat on the high-hat cymbal with his left foot. Th e right foot, controlling the bass drum pedal, plays thunderous accents (known during World War II as dropping bombs), while the left hand swoops over the rest of the drum kit, adding sharp responses on the snare drum, tom-tom, or crash cymbal. Th is is the default rhythm: when the drummer wants to add an improvised passage, or fi ll, he can use both feet and hands to create more complicated patterns. A good drummer can play in several rhythmic feelings, shifting from swing in one tune to funk, Latin, or a soft ballad in another.

Listening to the rhythm section is a delight in itself. You can concentrate on it as a team or in terms of each player, focusing on how he or she negoti-ates an individual role in a constantly changing context. Or you can watch interactions: seeing how the piano and bass work together, or the bass and drums. A good rhythm section makes the music move in countless ways.

Still, the main focus for a jazz performance lies with the soloist. How ex-actly does the saxophonist or trumpet player decide which notes to play? We can off er a few general paradigms.

In document APLICACIÓN A LA COMPRA DE ALIMENTACIÓN EN HIPERMERCADOS (página 51-69)