Females participating in competitions where they are judged based on their physique has grown over the last ten years (Bunsell, 2013; Hunter, 2013). Female bodybuilding used to be the only category women could compete in, however several categories have been created since. Hunter (2013, p.4) describes these different categories as “a continuum between the feminine ideal and the outermost reaches of female masculinity”. These range from the toned bikini category to the extremely muscular bodybuilding category. As Bordo (1990) argues, being slim or thin is now only a part of depicting the ideal female body; suggesting that along with being slim, women need to be somewhat muscular and athletic. What became clear when considering Bordo’s argument, along with my findings, was that the
The popularity of a more muscular “athletic” look was discussed by almost all of the females within this study. Unpicking what was meant by an “athletic” look revealed a “slim” body with a rounded, well developed “bum” and “toned” arms.Katie, Sally, Cathy, Tracey, Lucy, Catriona, Mattie and Ellie all thought these characteristics constituted the ideal female form, which they looked to embody. All of these women had either competed or had, at one point, considered competing in a physique competition. A small number of them were intent on developing their abdominal muscles to achieve a “six-pack”, whereas the majority were content with a flat, “toned stomach”. Most of the other women in the study discussed how they felt this “athletic” look was ideal, however they did not necessarily try to achieve this look themselves. The reasons they gave for this included: the demands of their particular sport, feeling unmotivated as they believed this look was unachievable, as well as concerns about health implications. How then, does this “athletic” look relate to physique competitors and bodybuilders?
Female athletes competing in bikini, fitness, figure (collectively known as physique competitions) or bodybuilding competitions each adhere to a prescribed physique (described fully in Appendix 1). However, it is important to note that these categories are often open to interpretation, depending upon the judges who are officiating and what federation the athlete is competing within. Bunsell (2013) states that physique categories expect competitors to have far less muscle mass and a little more body fat than bodybuilders. Lucy commented on the popularity of the “bottom-heavy” look arising from physique competitions:
there is a bit of a tendency for a bottom-heavy look… larger glutes, hamstrings whatever. I think that’s very popular just now and it’s showing in fitness as well. That’s what the WBFF like... UKBFF as well, everyone likes big glutes and I think just in general everyone just wants to be fairly lean (Lucy).
The increased popularity of physique competitions has, to some extent, resulted in the decline of female bodybuilding (Bunsell, 2013). The physique categories, especially bikini and fitness, are closer to the social norms of the ideal female body and require a toned, soft look. Bunsell argues that the growth of physique competitions could be attributed to the marketability of competitors. Fitness and bikini competitions move away from the hard, harsh look of female bodybuilding; a look that none of the women in the current study aspired to. All of
the participants said they did not want to look, “too big”, “chunky”, “bulky” or “overly muscular”. Even those participants who suggested their ideal body incorporated muscularity discussed how some women, for example female bodybuilders, can look “too muscular”. Jamie reflected:
I think there would be a threshold where if I like, I thought to myself I was getting too muscular I would cut back… I don’t think I would want to be that muscular (Jamie).
Jamie was not alone in this opinion. What was deemed “too muscular” was a unique understanding for each participant, however when shown an image of a female bodybuilder (Appendix 8, Picture 2), all of the women said they would not want to become “that muscular”. Interestingly, the women in the study did not want to be associated with female bodybuilders, in that they did not want people to believe because they trained in the weights areas, they wanted to develop disproportionate muscle mass. Lola suggested female bodybuilders “scare” women who don’t understand the process of building muscle, whereby they believe as soon as they start lifting weights they will build large amounts of muscle mass, which in turn puts women off using the weights areas.
A prevalent discourse that has been constructed within society is that females are biologically unable to match the athletic build, or performance, of males without the use of performance-enhancing drugs (Geissler, 2012). This understanding creates a boundary for how muscular a female can become before she is considered to defy the social norms of femininity. In this study, those who stepped beyond these boundaries were regarded as “deviant” or “unnatural”. For example, when shown the image of the female bodybuilder (Appendix 8, Picture 2) almost all of the women thought she had used anabolic steroids. A small number of participants, Mattie (a weightlifter), Sally (a swimmer) and Jamie (a footballer) expressed their belief that the female bodybuilder would be unable to fulfil a role of motherhood. For example:
I think she’s pumped with steroids. I think it’s totally taking the mark too far. It’s too much… not just because she’s pumped with steroids…
that, I think that’s a good thing but I think looking like that is just not good. Could she have a child? She's probably too lean (Sally).
The use of performance enhancing drugs is popular within the bodybuilding community (Bunsell, 2013; Grogan et al. 2006, Heywood, 1998). Bunsell (2013, p. 87) found that male bodybuilders who took steroids could boast of their use almost “as a badge of honour” whereas female bodybuilders were less likely to discuss their use of steroids. Both males and females believed that if men injected testosterone-mimicking steroids they were strengthening their natural hormones, whereas females were putting something unnatural into their bodies (Bunsell, 2013). However, this is a misconception as females do have testosterone within their bodies, although at a much lower level (Baucom et al. 1985).
In this discussion it is important to consider the role of testosterone in regards to transgender males wishing to undergo hormone replacement therapy. In this therapy, testosterone is introduced so a transgender male can begin their physical transition (Israel et al. 1997). Although injecting testosterone is an important part of the transition process, simply injecting it alone will not change a biologically female body into a biologically male body. It will, however, help to: increase muscle mass and bone density, stimulate the growth of body hair and deepen the voice, characteristics associated with masculinity (Israel et al. 1997). Perhaps because of these physiological changes associated with testosterone, it was not surprising that the interviewees expressed opposition to the look of women who they perceived to be using steroids.
None of the participants wanted to take part in bodybuilding or be associated with anabolic steroid use, describing female bodybuilders’ muscularity as, “unnatural”, “disgusting” and “too far”. The history and the use of drugs in sport, and more specifically bodybuilding, is beyond the scope of the current study, however it is important to note that there is an understanding within the sport of bodybuilding, that the use of anabolic steroids is commonplace. Grogan et al. (2006) comment that bodybuilding is one of the few unique sports in which the majority of competitors do acknowledge taking steroids as part of their preparation for a competition. Because this is so ingrained within bodybuilding, natural or drug free competitions have been set up for competitors who decide not to take steroids. So, if ‘natural’ equates to ‘drug free’, then bodybuilding could be viewed as
‘unnatural’. This seemed to be one of the reasons why the interviewees were against what they deemed, “overly” muscular bodies, as the processes required to obtain such a body were seen as unnatural.
None of the interviewees could understand why female bodybuilders wanted to deviate from the characteristics of femininity in the way they did. In fact, the women were quite fixed in their perceptions of how muscular a women’s body should be. Comments included:
I think that’s disgusting. She looks like a guy, cut the head off it looks like a guy in a bikini. I think that’s awful… I assume she must have had to take something to get like that so either way it’s not healthy (Natalie). it just doesn’t look natural. It just looks like everything’s exaggerated. I don’t think you can naturally get to that point especially as a female (Beatrice).
it’s just too much. See when you are touching on the femininity kind of thing. I just think it’s not attractive. She must be absolutely demented, her training, eating, that’s obviously her lifestyle (Mary-Kate).
When reflecting on why the participants so obviously attempted to dissociate themselves from female bodybuilders it is important to consider the health impacts of using anabolic steroids. Steroids can cause high blood pressure, increase the chances of suffering from a stroke, heart attack or liver failure (FRANK, 2016). In fact, the majority of women who mentioned steroid use knew it was an unhealthy practice. Additionally, it is also important to consider the sporting backgrounds of the women. Lisa, Sally, Jamie, Alex and Beatrice all took part in competitive sport outside of the gym, including: swimming, rugby and football. Dora, Lola, Mattie and Katharine all took part in competitive weightlifting and Penny was a powerlifter. In all of these sports, anabolic steroids are banned substances, and to use them might potentially result in being banned from the sport if caught by a positive test result. Therefore, it is perhaps unsurprising that these women articulated strongly negative opinions about muscular women who they believed were using steroids.
may not be down to gender at all, but again due the perceived drug use and deviance in bodybuilding. Lisa commented:
I think she’s been taking lots of steroids… I wouldn’t say that’s healthy but I would also say that for a man (Lisa).
This shows that although bodybuilding deviates from the social norms and gender stereotypes of femininity, it also deviates in some ways from the norms of masculinity. Rubinstein (2003, p. 1) describes bodybuilding as a subculture that “exploits grandiosity and excess. Not only are the bodies in this world large, but also even descriptions of them are extravagant.” Bodybuilding is an endeavour that aims to increase the muscle size and symmetry of the human body. However, it is practised to such extremes through training, supplements and nutrition, to construct the desired body to win a competition (Bjørnestad, Kandal & Anderssen, 2014). If this type of body was too muscular for what a small number of the females believed to be desirable for a male, then their intolerance for a female bodybuilder is unsurprising. Even though the majority of the women in this study wanted to gain muscle size, they did so with caution for fear of being labelled abnormal.