CONCLUSIÓN Y CONSIDERACIONES FINALES

This thesis is divided into 10 chapters. Chapter 1 deals with the research background to this study, research questions, a set of key conceptual frameworks, the review of current scholarly studies on Sufism in Indonesia, and methods of data

collection. This chapter also briefly explains the use of social movement theories and their application to understanding the Naqshbandi-Haqqani movement in Indonesia and concludes with a brief statement on the focus, aims and significance of this study.

The next eight chapters of this thesis elaborate in detail on some important features of Naqshbandi-Haqqani. It begins with chapter 2 on the origins and historical trajectories that trace this Sufi movement to religious teachings laid down by spiritual masters in Central Asia back in the 14th century. This chapter is important to understand gradual process of institutional evolution, early changes and internal reform, external challenge, struggle, and survival related to different socio-historical contexts for more than 600 years and how this is used to establish claim of continuity to the Prophetic tradition.

Chapter 3 deals with some socio-cultural and economic factors related to emerging Sufi religiosity in Indonesia. Socio-cultural factors have to do with impact of urbanisation and higher educational reform in Indonesia in the last 40 years, whereas economic factors is related to market system and its impact in leading to commodification and changing pattern of consumption among Indonesian Muslims. Altogether, these factors contribute to and lay a foundation for emerging Sufi religiosity that in turn paves the way for transnational transmission of Naqshbandi-Haqqani in the late 1990s.

Chapter 4 focuses on important feature of Naqshbandi-Haqqani, especially on the use of the Internet for preaching and guiding purposes. This chapter compares the use of the Internet in two different contexts, the USA and Indonesia.

This chapter shows how information technology has influence in determining the way Sufi teaching is transmitted in contemporary era. However, this chapter also demonstrates that while technology is helpful, it cannot generate intimate and emotive relationship that many disciples aspire to receive from their association.

The next two chapters of this thesis examine the role of charisma, ritual and organising structure of Naqshbandi-Haqqani in Indonesia. Chapter 5 reveals that Naqshbandi-Haqqani is attractive because it provides an intimate environment and emotive relationship that fulfill religious needs of the disciples/followers. This intimate environment is based on close relationship between the master and disciples and regular ritual of communal gathering. Whereas chapter 6 explores organising structure and organisational dynamics of Naqshbandi-Haqqani movement in Indonesia. This chapter focuses particularly on leadership structure and organisational capacity to recruit new members and maintain the old ones.

Chapter 7 deals with teaching, belief, and socio-political views of Naqshbandi-Haqqani community. This chapter particularly deals with the influence of Akbari ideas in shaping millenarian-apocalyptic beliefs, strong adherence to Sunni orthodoxy, and its opposing view against overt political Islamism and Salafism. This chapter argues that Naqshbandi-Haqqani’s teachings attempt to reconcile three different strands of Islamic teaching: mysticism, Islamic legalism and political Islamism.

Chapter 8 deals with the public activities and Islamic propagation that involve Naqshbandi Haqqani in Indonesia. This chapter begins with political

factors driving this public activity and examine various method adopted to propagate Sufism to the broader audience.

Related to that, chapter 9 examines opposition and controversies generated by Naqshbandi-Haqqani in Indonesia and how this Sufi group responds and addresses the problem. This chapter demonstrates that despite its growing popularity, Sufism as a teaching and mode of Islamic piety when it becomes public is always highly contested. This contestation plays a part in shaping the dynamics of contemporary religious life and diverse Islamic expression in Indonesia.

Chapter 10 provides a brief conclusion that summarizes the most important points of discussion in this study, elaborating on the theoretical implications of these discussions and the empirical contribution to the growing scholarly literature on Naqshbandi-Haqqani, Sufism and general Islamic activism in Indonesia.

30 Chapter 2

N A Q S H B A N D I - H A Q Q A N I A N D T R A N S N A T I O N A L S U F I M O V E M E N T

T h e O r i g i n s a n d H i s t o r i c a l T r a j e c t o r i e s

‘Whether in Jakarta, Cairo or Chicago, a new umma is taking shape that is envisioned against the perceived challenge of (western) modernity, and which offers an "Islamic" solution by invoking the images of the past to bolster the arguments of the present. Just whether Sufism is an intrinsic element of the package, and if indeed their electronic silsilas and ijazas will be accepted by the broader public remains, for the moment, an open question’ (Laffan 2006, 112-113)

Naqshbandi-Haqqani is a global Sufi movement with followers in 25 different countries and four continents. This is one of a handful of Naqshbandi movements that have survived into the modern era. Naqshbandi-Haqqani represents continuity and change of long Sufi tradition and activism. Drawing from the rich resources of previous scholarly studies, written materials, and online sources, this chapter examines the historical origins and trajectories of the Naqshbandi-Haqqani movement. This chapter consists of seven sections. The first three sections deals with the historical origins of Naqshbandi Sufi group – the progenitor of Naqshbandi Haqqani offshoot – in Uzbekistan and its early development to the Muslim world in Indian subcontinent during Mughal Empire and Middle East during the Ottoman rule up to the post colonial era. The next two sections examine the flourishing of Naqshbandi-Haqqani in Western Europe and North America between 1970s and 1990s. The sixth section deals with transnational transmission of Naqshbandi-Haqqani in Indonesia in the late 1990s.

Finally, this chapter concludes by re-elaborating the main argument proposed in this chapter.

2.1 Origins and Early Transnational Expansion: Naqshbandi under Timurid