Mobile phone use is a widely researched source of driver distraction (e.g. Lesch & Hancock, 2004; Strayer et al, 2003). Using a phone while driving has been suggested to increase a driver’s risk of collision because the act involves two tasks competing for limited attention capacity at the same time (Collet, Guillot &Petit, 2010). In one study where collision victims were asked about the details of their collision, and mobile phone companies provided corroborative information regarding phone use, using a mobile phone whilst driving was linked to drivers being four times more likely to sustain collision injuries resulting in hospitalization (McEvoy et al, 2005).
Since 2007, in the UK it has been illegal to drive a car whilst using a hand-held phone (gov.uk).
Similar laws are in place in various countries around the world and some have even banned the use of hands-free devices (drivers.com). The laws put in place are in part a result of extensive research from various sources that have found a continued and substantial link between mobile phone use and collision risk (Collet et al, 2010). McEvoy’s (2005) case study analysis revealed that a driver’s use of a mobile phone within 10 minutes before a collision was associated with a
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fourfold increased likelihood of having a collision. Research using questionnaire-based evidence has led to a similar conclusion. Sagberg (2001) for example, had 9000 drivers who had recently reported a collision to their insurance company complete a questionnaire on their driving behaviour. It was found that mobile phones were estimated to be used in 0.86% of collisions, 72% higher than the expected rate (Sagberg, 2001). In addition, Laberge-Nadeau et al. (2003) analysed more than 36,000 questionnaire responses concerning driver behaviour and found that the risk of collision was 38% higher for mobile phone users.
Experimental data has also been instrumental in demonstrating the hazardous nature of using a mobile phone whilst driving. Driving performance in this type of research is often operationalized into two interrelated domains: a) the ability to detect and respond to external stimuli; and b) the ability to keep motor control on a vehicle moving under usual conditions of driving (Collet et al, 2010). Much research has focused on the first of these domains, with researchers most commonly evaluating driver’s attention by assessing their signal detection ability and reaction time, where the number of missed targets and longer time to brake is taken as indication that the driver’s attention is divided (Collet et al, 2010). McKnight and McKnight (1993) for example, presented participants with a 25-minute video clip containing 45 highway traffic situations. Participants had to observe the video and respond to the situations by manipulating simulated vehicle controls whilst under one of five distraction conditions: placing a mobile phone call, carrying on a casual mobile phone conversation, carrying on an intense mobile phone conversation, tuning a radio and no distraction. McKnight and McKnight (1993) found that all of the distractions led to substantial increases in the proportion of situations to which participants failed to respond; and that the number of non-responses for younger participants was particularly evident when they were partaking in an intense phone conversation.
Similarly a recent naturalistic driving study following the in-car behaviour of a group of adolescent drivers found that over a 6 month period electronic device use was the most common
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single type of distracted behaviour they engaged in (Foss & Goodwin, 2014). Young drivers are at a particularly elevated risk of collision whilst using a mobile phone because of their lack of automatic driving skills. It is argued that because they have not yet automated the mechanical aspects of driving, they have difficulty in maintaining steady control of the vehicle whilst their attention is directed toward use of the phone, and are therefore more at risk of having a collision (Neyens & Boyle, 2007).
There is a vast amount of evidence supporting the notion that phoning whilst driving substantially increases the likelihood of a collision (Collet et al, 2010) and the laws that are in place worldwide limiting the use of a mobile phone whilst driving reflects this. However in many countries, including the UK, it is not illegal for people to use hands-free devices whilst driving. Drivers consider hands-free mobile phone use to be safer than hand-held (White et al, 2004) however research such as that conducted by McEvoy et al. (2005) found that using a mobile phone up to 10 minutes before having a collision, was associated with a collision being four times more likely to occur, regardless of whether the device being used was hands-free or handheld. Similarly Nunes and Recarte (2002) found that when the conversations on a hands-free device were more cognitively demanding, drivers’ visual detection and response capacities were impeded. Nunes and Recarte (2002) used a driving simulator to test various aspects of participants driving ability whilst they performed several cognitive tasks including phone conversations on a hands-free phone. They found that when the hands-free phone conversations were demanding, drivers’ visual processing capacities were negatively affected, whereas when the phone conversations were not too cognitively demanding, very little changes to visual search and processing performance was found. Nunes and Recarte (2002) suggested that the distracting effect of hands-free mobile phone conversations is similar to that of live passenger conversations, but the degree of conversation complexity and type of content will increase the risk of driver distraction.
46 1.2.7 Mobile phone use: text messaging
Another increasingly studied aspect concerning mobile phone use and its association with collision rates is the effect of text messaging while driving. It is claimed that text messaging may be even more of a distraction than talking on a mobile phone while driving (Lee, 2007) and a recent survey found that up to 92% of young drivers report reading texts while driving, 81%
reply to them, and 70% reported initiating them (Atchley, Atwood & Boulton, 2011). A slightly older, more conservative estimate suggests that around 48.5% of drivers between the ages of 18 and 24 text while driving; but this is still substantially higher than the figure of 14.1% for all other aged drivers (American Automobile Association, AAA) (2008). Benson, McLaughlin &
Giles (2015) found that young drivers were the age group most likely to report ever having sent a text message while driving and McEvoy, Stevenson and Woodward (2006) found that young drivers are more likely to text and drive than their older counterparts, and so they may be more at risk of the distracting effects of text messaging whilst driving because they are more likely to engage in this activity.
Studies using driving simulators have shown that sending and receiving text messages while driving can affect various aspects of young drivers’ driving behaviour (e.g. Crisler et al, 2008;
Hosking, Young & Regan, 2009). In Hosking et al.’s (2009) study they found that texting was associated with a 400% increase in young drivers’ time spent not looking at the road (compared to a baseline no-texting condition), and missed lane changes increased by 140%. Similarly, Crisler et al. (2008) found that when text messaging young drivers became impaired on lane keeping, speed modulation and steering performance. Drews et al. (2009) extended this procedure, having young drivers follow a vehicle in a driving simulator whilst maintaining a free-form text message conversation with a friend using their personal mobile phone. They found that whilst texting, these participants had slower brake onset times, longer following distances, poorer lane keeping and more collisions. In other studies using driving simulators, evidence suggests that whilst texting, drivers are more likely to spend more time looking inside the car, increase their following distance, miss more lane-change cues and deviate from the lane
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more often (Hosking et al, 2009). They also have collisions more often, are more likely to strike a pedestrian, cross centre-lines and have more road edge excursions than controls (Alosco et al, 2012).
There is also some evidence from a naturalistic physical-road study that texting while driving negatively impacts driver behaviour. Owens, McLaughlin and Sudweeks (2011) implemented a steering-wheel controlled text messaging system and observed participants’ driving behaviour on a real road as they sent and received text messages whilst manoeuvring the vehicle. They found that whilst texting, drivers had a higher mental demand, conducted more frequent and longer glances away from the roadway, and showed degraded steering ability. Interestingly, older drivers’ behaviour was more negatively impacted than the young drivers, perhaps due to less familiarity with texting, however young drivers were also significantly impaired when text-driving, so it is essential that this risk be minimised (Owens, McLaughlin & Sudweeks, 2011).
In addition to this, Atchley et al. (2011) found that young drivers know the risks of texting while driving, and perceive texting to be more risky than talking on the phone, but this awareness does not result in fewer intentions to text while driving. This refutes the idea that young drivers may not be aware how dangerous it is, and rather actively engage in the behaviour irrespective of the potential risks. This suggests that young drivers perceive risks differently and that a general awareness of danger may not translate into actual safer driving. These findings support the body of literature built from driving simulator studies, that texting while driving has serious negative distracting effects on various aspects of driving behaviour. In a recent review of the literature Kinnear and Stevens (2015) identified that texting on a mobile phone while driving is one of the most risky in-car distractions that a driver can engage in, because of the multiple forms of distraction it entails. The authors identified five key areas of distraction that can divert a driver’s attention away from the road – cognitive, visual, auditory, manual and exposure time – and showed how texting on a phone leads to a high level of distraction on three of the five areas – cognitive, visual and manual. As younger drivers use text messaging whilst driving more often
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than older drivers (AAA, 2008) it is thus logical to assume that text messaging may play a substantial role in their high collision rate.
Although mobile phone use while driving is one of the most widely studied aspects of driver distraction, there are many others that warrant more research. Brodsky & Slor (2013) investigated how background music in the car may influence young drivers’ behaviour. They found that whilst listening to their preferred music evoked feelings of positive mood and enjoyment in young drivers, this also resulted in them driving more aggressively and making more errors, misjudgements and violations. As young drivers often cite listening to music as a popular in-car activity, with one study suggesting that music is present in up to 91% of transport experiences (Sloboda et al, 200), this may be a concerning factor influencing their driving behaviour. Similarly, a survey conducted by an insurance brand for young drivers has highlighted how the increasing availability and functionality of mobile phone apps are creating more distractions for young drivers (Ingenie, 2012). Based on responses from 1,000 18 - 25 year olds, they found that up to one third admitted using Facebook whilst driving and up to 18% said they had played games such as Draw Something or Angry Birds while in control of the car.
These apps are hugely distracting and take a high level of concentration from the user.
Combined with the complex need to control a vehicle and watch for hazards, this puts the young driver at a much higher risk of collision as a result (Ingenie, 2012).
To summarise, young drivers are more likely than older drivers to engage in distracting activities whilst driving (Lam, 2002); and are more likely to have a collision as a result (Neyens
& Boyle, 2007). Various in-car distractions have been shown to be linked to young drivers’
collision risk; the most widely studied being mobile phone use (McEvoy et al, 2005). When distracted young drivers have slower reaction times (Alm & Nilsson, 1995), longer glances away from the road (Simons-Morton et al, 2014) and missed lane changes (Hosking et al, 2009).
Whilst young drivers do understand the risks they tend to report engaging in distracting behaviour regardless (Atchley et al, 2011). Other forms of distraction e.g. listening to preferred
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music has also been linked with young drivers committing more traffic violations and aggressive driving (Brosky & Slor, 2013). As Young and Salmon (2012) pointed out research is now needed to draw out the role of causation between driver distraction and driver error.