Variable 2: Jornada Escolar Regular
IV. Conclusiones
A wide range of processing techniques has been used to increase the utilisation of legumes. The use of legumes is limited due to the presence of antinutritional factors, such as protease inhibitors, lectins, phytate, and tannins, which reduce the bioavailability and digestibility of nutrients, thus lowering their nutritive value. Methods that have been traditionally used or been studied involve mechanical treatments of the legume seeds, heat
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treatments and other. Their application results in reduction of the content of antinutrients by removing or inactivating them.
The most common techniques that have been applied to various legume species are, soaking, cooking (boiling), pressure cooking, autoclaving, microwave cooking, roasting, extrusion, dehulling, fermentation, and radiation to a less extent. Herein an analysis of the effects of various processing techniques on legumes’ nutrients and antinutrients will be attempted. Regarding the effects of processing methods on the nutrient and antinutrient content of soybeans, a rich literature exists. Therefore only an indicative part of it is considered within the present analysis, in the respective tables.
Soaking is one of the traditional methods of processing legumes prior to cooking. It is usually an overnight operation and reduces the time necessary for tenderizing the texture (reduces cooking time more than 50%). Soaking consists of hydration of the seeds and the results obtained depend on factors such as the legume species, variety, duration of soaking, temperature, pH and salinity of the soaking media. Various soaking conditions have been examined in the existing literature for different types of legumes. Soaking for i.e. 6, 12 and 18h has been studied in water, sodium chloride solution (usually 1% w/v), or sodium carbonate solution (0.5-1% w/v). Soaking in general has no affect or slightly increases the protein and fat content of legume species (Table 10). Ash content in most species was either not affected or reduced, except in lupins (5% increase). Considering the carbohydrate content, soaking reduced starch while a small increase was observed for common beans variety, whereas the fibre content was increased by 0 to 26%. The antinutritional factors, tannins, phytic acid contents and trypsin inhibitor in general were reduced. The decrease in these antinutrients after soaking is generally attributed to the internal process of leaching.
Heat treatments are applied in order to destroy or inactivate heat-labile antinutritional factors such as lectins, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors and amylase inhibitors (when present), and thus to improve the protein quality of legumes. Cooking in boiling water is a technique often used for legumes in human diet. The duration of cooking of various legumes seeds that have been applied are usually 20min to 3hr, depending on the species. In most studies the cooking process ended when the legume seeds were tender upon finger compression. Cooking resulted in significant reduction and total inactivation of trypsin inhibitors in cases where the seeds had been previously soaked or soaked and dehulled (Table 11). Tannin, phytic acid and ash contents are reduced after cooking in all cases. The effects of cooking on the nutrient composition vary according to literature between different legume species.
Another type of cooking that has been used is pressure-cooking. It is usually done in a domestic pressure cooker for i.e. 10, 15 or 30 min at 1, 5 or 15 psi. Autoclaving of various legume species has also been studied at 120-121oC and 15psi for 10, 15, 20 or 35 min. The difference between autoclaving and pressure-cooking is that the latter does not involve a drying cycle. Pre-soaking of legume seeds and autoclaving results in significant decrease in trypsin inhibitor activity (Table 12). Autoclaving and pressure-cooking reduce tannin and phytic acid contents with the highest reduction reported for mucuna beans. Decrease in ash content has been also reported whereas no or slight changes were reported for the other nutrients.
Microwave cooking has been studied for few legume species. Some studies have shown that microwave heating has lower impact on nutrient composition in food since preparation time is shorter and less water is used. The legume seeds are usually soaked before and
Nutritional and Antinutritional Composition of Legumes and Factors Affecting it 155 different power has been applied for, i.e., 4, 8, 12 and 15 min. A high percentage (57-100%) of trypsin inhibitors were inactivated (Table 13). Microwave cooking decreased trypsin inhibitors in soybeans by 70 and 96% in raw and soaked seeds, respectively (Hernandez-Infante et al., 1998). Ash and starch were reduced in most legume species while protein, fat and dietary fibre contents were in most species not affected.
Roasting is a heat treatment also used to improve the nutritional quality of legumes. It usually involves heating at 180oC for 20min. Changes in proximate composition and antinutritional factors of seeds of the mangrove wild legume Canavalia cathartica have been studied after roasting and dehulling (Seena et al., 2005, 2006). The crude protein and fiber content of the processed seeds decreased compared to the raw seeds (8-14% and 2-7%
reduction, respectively) while the ash content was not affected and the lipid increased up to 19%. As regards to the antinutritional factors no tannins as well as trypsin inhibitor activity were present in raw seeds. However total phenolic content showed a slight increase in roasted seeds. In three varieties of cowpeas the effect of roasting in a hot air oven at 150oC for 35 min was a 35-55% reduction of the tannin content. Further reduction was observed after dehulling of the roasted seeds, reaching 88-92% (Plahar et al., 1997). In the former study it was concluded that roasting destroyed the heat-labile protease inhibitors since the in vitro protein digestibility of cowpeas improved. Another study of the effects of roasting on the protein composition of African yambean showed that this process increased the protein content by 11% (Ene-Obong and Obizoba, 1996). Furthermore, it totally reduced the tannin content whereas phytate was increased by 4%.
Extrusion cooking is a heat treatment in which the material is also subjected to intense mechanical shear. Usually a twin-screw extruder has been used and extrusion temperatures mostly applied to legumes were 140, 148, 180oC. The cost of extrusion is lower compared to other heating systems such as baking and autoclaving etc., due to the more efficient use of energy and better control of the process. Results of extrusion are the gelatinisation of starch, denaturation of protein, and inactivation of heat-labile antinutritional factors, therefore increasing the digestibility of starch and protein (Alonso, 2000a and 2000b, Masoero, 2005).
As shown in Table 14 extrusion resulted in almost total reduction in trypsin inhibitor activity.
Tannin and phytic acid contents were less decreased while no changes or minor reductions were observed in the proximate composition of the seeds.
Radiation has been shown to improve the nutritional quality to some extent. Radiation involves the treatment of legumes using gamma irradiation at various dose levels (i.e. 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 30, 60 kGy) at room temperature. The effects of radiation in various legume species as reported by El-Neily, 2007, and Farag, 1998 showed no appreciable alterations in the nutrient composition of peas, chickpeas, cowpeas, lentils, kidney beans and soybeans after the applied irradiation dose. However, tannins and phytic acid contents were reduced up to 28 and 38%, respectively.
Dehulling is a mechanical treatment, which results in removing antinutritional factors present in the hull of legume seeds such as non-starch polysaccharides and tannins. The hulls contain mostly non-starch polysaccharides which percentage varies within different species and within varieties of the same species (Champ et al., 1986). The main polysaccharides are cellulose, hemicellulose and pectins. Lignin is found in small amounts partly linked to cellulose and non-cellulosic polysaccharides of the cell wall (Knudsen, 1997). Starch and protein are concentrated in the cotyledon of the seeds. Lectins and trypsin inhibitors are the antinutritional factors also concentrated mostly in the cotyledon rather than in the hull, so
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dehulling is not an effective method for reducing these antinutritional factors (Αlonso et al., 1998, Andersen R.L. & Wolf W.J., 1995). As shown in Table 15, phytic acid levels were slightly reduced only in cowpeas and trypsin inhibitors decreased in cowpeas and African yam bean. The biggest decrease was observed in tannin and dietary fibre content of the dehulled seeds since these compounds are present mostly in the seed’s testa.
Solid substrate fermentation is an alternative for processing legumes in order to improve their nutritional quality. It involves the production of Tempeh by the traditional procedure usually used for soybean but currently used for other legume species also. The procedure involves dehulling of the seeds, overnight soaking, cooking and finally inoculation with a mold, usually with different strains of Rhizopus spp, and incubation at temperatures such as 31-36oC for various periods of time (12-72h). Fermentation of the seeds resulted in up to 100% reduction of the antinutritional factors (tannins, phytic acid and trypsin inhibitors) (Table 16).
Various processing techniques have been already covered by the existing literature in respect to their impact on legumes’ nutrients and antinutrients. However, the absence of uniform conditions within the same treatment makes comparisons between legumes not possible. More systematic research on effects of conditions within treatments will be needed in order to allow us to make safer conclusions.
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