CAPÍTULO 4 CONSTRUCCIÓN DE LA SOLUCIÓN PROPUESTA
4.6. Conclusiones Parciales
Like Spartaʹs social and educational system, its government was much admired by contemporaries. It consisted of monarchical, oligarchical, and democratic elements:
these constituted the kind of system political theorists like Aristotle called a mixed constitution. Spartan conservatism made for a reluctance to abandon traditional institutions like the monarchy and the council of elders when other
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Greek poleis had abolished these institutions and had decreased the importance of hereditary power in government. As later on in the Roman republic, the various organs of government and shared offices were designed to serve as checks and balances to one another, minimizing the danger that the government would take too rapid, radical action.
Dual Kingship
The executive office was diluted by dividing it between two men. Two kings (basileis) served as the head of government. One each was drawn from the prominent families of the Agiads and the Eurypontids. This system probably reflects an effort to resolve the tensions that arose when the villages united to form the town of Sparta; perhaps these kings had originally been chiefs of the two most powerful villages. The
succession was hereditary and usually passed to the oldest son born after the kingʹs accession. When a kingʹs marriage had not produced a son, the king was urged to take a second wife to help ensure the continuity of the male line. Despite these exceptions, and despite the report about wife sharing for reproductive purposes, the Spartans, like other Greeks, were monogamous. Nowhere was the value of the Spartan dual ideology of competition and cooperation more apparent than in the kingship. The two kings, who were both cooperative and competitive with one another, and who were equal in authority, served as a mutual check on the power of the monarchy. Sparta, moreover, was never without a leader, and thus avoided what the Greeks called ʺanarchyʺ (absence of leadership or of government).
Like the Dark Age basileis, the Spartan kings exercised military, religious, and judicial powers; in many ways their manner of rule resembled that of the Homeric chiefs. One king served as commander‐in‐chief of the armed forces, while the other supervised domestic matters at home and became in charge if his co‐king was killed in action. (This division of labor came about when history taught the Spartans the harsh lesson that it was risky to send two kings out in command of a single
campaign. Herodotus tells of the crisis that arose shortly before 500 BC., when King Demaratus changed his mind about attacking the Athenians and abandoned his co‐
king Cleomenes just as battle was about to be joined. For this reason the Spartans passed the law mandating that one king remain in Sparta while his colleague was away on campaign.) The kings were not mere figureheads but were important leaders who contributed to the military effectiveness of the country. Considered descendants of Zeus through his son Heracles, the kings functioned as the chief priests and conducted all the public sacrifices in behalf of Sparta. Their
interpretations of the sacrificial omens influenced their decisions in military matters.
The royal compensation for fulfilling the office of priest included a supply of animals for a bimonthly sacrifice to Apollo and consequently the special favor of the god. The kings were given the skins of animals that were sacrificed, and double portions of the meat that was distributed. They did not consume the extra meat themselves, but gave it away as gifts, a practice that reflects the common Greek aristocratic system of
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demonstrating and consolidating oneʹs power by showing signs of generosity. They were also expected to serve as moral exemplars. Thus, the courage and selfsacrifice of King Leonidas and his troops, who obeyed the command of the Spartans to fight at Thermopylae in 480 BC against all odds in the war against the Persians, became legendary and enhanced the image of the invincible Spartans, although many other Greeks fought bravely at the same battle.
Gerousia
The kings shared their judicial functions with the other members of the gerousia, the Council of Gerontes (ʺEldersʺ). In addition to the two kings, the gerousia was
composed of twenty‐eight men over the age of 60 who served for the rest of their lives. Sixty was also the age at which military service terminated. Though all male citizens were eligible, gerousia members were usually wealthy, influential men.
Consequently, the gerousia constituted an aristocratic, oligarchic component.
Election to the gerousia was the highest honor to which a Spartan could aspire.
Candidates appeared in an order determined by lot. The winners were chosen by acclamation in the assembly. Those who received the loudest shouts were considered elected, a procedure Aristotle later criticized as ʺchildish.ʺ The gerousia possessed the crucial right of legislative initiative: no bill could be brought before the assembly
until it had first been discussed by the gerousia, and the gerousia could decline to accept a decision of the assembly by summarily declaring an adjournment. It also served as a criminal court for cases of homicide, treason, and other serious offenses that carried the penalty of disenfranchisement, exile, or death.
Ephors
Every year the Spartans elected five ephors by acclamation from candidates over the age of 30. The ephors (ʺoverseersʺ) supervised the kings and represented the
principle of law, precious to the Spartans as it was to many Greeks. Since Spartan laws were unwritten, it was particularly useful to have officials whose role was to serve as judicial watchdogs. When the office of ephor came into being is unclear: it is not mentioned in the Great Rhetra.
The ephors took a monthly oath to uphold the office of the kings as long as they behaved in accordance with the laws, and they shared some of the kingsʹ executive powers; but they were also empowered to impeach kings and depose them. Ephors monitored the kings in Sparta, and two of them always accompanied a king who was on campaign. The ephors presided over the gerousia and assembly, and dealt with foreign embassies. They also exercised judicial powers in civic matters and in cases involving perioikoi.
One ephor was always ʺeponymous,ʺ that is, his name was used at Sparta to signify the year. For example, Thucydides dates a treaty of 421 as follows: ʺThe treaty is effective from the 27th day of the month of Artemisium at Sparta, when Pleistolas is an ephor; and at Athens from the 25th day of the month of Elaphe‐
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bolium, when Alcaeus is an archonʺ (5‐19). As a check on the ephorsʹ power, they served for only one year, could not be reelected, and were subject to an audit by their successors. Thus, they were both a democratic and an oligarchic constituent of
government.
The ephors exercised total control over the education of the young and enforced the iron discipline of Sparta. They were in charge of the krypteia (ʺsecret policeʺ), a force recruited from the young and designed to control the helots. This feature of
government was unique to Sparta among Greek cities, though the Persian empire also had an elaborate spy system. Some of the most talented young men were sent out for a year to spy on the helots and were encouraged to kill any helots they caught, especially the best of them who might be most prone to rebel. The ephors declared war against the helots annually, thus making it possible for the Spartans to kill them without incurring the religious pollution that usually accompanied acts of
homicide. Plutarch gives a vivid picture of the doings of the krypteia. The magistrates, he wrote,
would despatch into the countryside in different directions the ones who appeared to be particularly intelligent; they were equipped with daggers and battle rations, but nothing else. By day they would disperse to obscure spots in order to hide and rest.
At night they made their way to roads and murdered any helot whom they caught.
Frequently, too, they made their way through the fields, killing the helots who stood out for their physique and strength.
( Plutarch, Lycurgus 28; Talbert 1988) Assembly
In terms of its membership, the assembly was the most democratic organ of Spartan government, for it included all male citizens over the age of 30. It met once a month at full moon, outdoors. Unlike the assembly that evolved at Athens, however, the Spartan assembly did not debate; citizens listened to a proposal made by the
gerousia and simply voted to accept or reject it, without discussion. The Spartan was trained to obey his superiors and to conform, not to take sides in public debate.
Lycurgus was said to have outlawed rhetoric teachers. This ethos gave rise to the English word ʺlaconicʺ (derived from Laconia), which is used to describe a spare style of speech or someone who talks very little.
The Mixed Constitution of Ancient Sparta
Since antiquity, many political theorists have admired Spartaʹs government,
believing it to confirm the basic principle that the best guarantee of stability lies in a blend of monarchic, oligarchic, and democratic elements. Certainly Sparta had kings, and the strong ideology of economic equality among male citizens fostered an
egalitarian spirit. In reality, however, the oligarchic element considerably
outweighed the other two. Power lay predominantly with the gerousia. As time went by, moreover, the five ephors also gained increasing power over the kings
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and frequently took the lead in framing foreign policy. Even if we discount the 95 percent or so of disfranchised residents of Laconia‐‐perioikoi, helots, and Spartan women‐‐the truth is that even within the subgroup of male citizens, participation in government was limited to a very small group of men, most of them rich.