This section discusses teaching and learning contexts of efficacious teachers. Particular attention is given to three areas: instructional strategy, classroom management, and student engagement because these three areas are directly related to teachers’ classroom practice (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001), and these three areas became the three aspects that were investigated in this study using the Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES). In addition, these areas are relevant as instructional strategy, classroom management, and student engagement are common topics for teachers when attending PD. The TSES was adapted in this study (see Chapter 3) to measure teacher self- efficacy across multiple grade level and teaching contexts by addressing a wide range of
27 teaching tasks that teachers believe are necessary for classroom practice (Tschannen- Moran & Hoy, 2001).
Bandura (2011) in his more recent work states that teacher self-efficacy can be affected by both positive and negative factors in the teaching environment. Teachers assess their contextual situations that affect their beliefs about whether they ‘can’ or ‘cannot’ perform tasks as teaching tasks are embedded within contexts which vary in difficulty and influences (Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Pajares (1996) also implies a strong relationship between teachers’ educational beliefs and their instructional decisions and classroom practices. The following sections discuss the three areas of self-efficacy: instructional strategy, classroom management, and student engagement.
Instructional strategy
Instructional strategies include all approaches that teachers may take to help them conduct teaching and learning. These strategies drive teachers’ instruction as they work to meet specific learning objectives. According to Pressley and Allington (2014), and Van Der Stuyf (2002), effective instructional strategies help teachers to meet the learning styles and the development needs of all their learners.
There has been a great deal of evidence describing the effects of teacher self-efficacy on
teacher’s instructional practice (Atay, 2007). Earlier research shows that teachers with
high efficacy beliefs implement more effective teaching strategies (Gordon, 2001; Ross & Bruce, 2007), try out new ideas (Ross, 1998), have a positive attitude toward the use of instructional innovations in the classroom (Allinder, 1994; Ross, 1994), and are willing to use difficult techniques that involve taking risks and involve sharing control with students (Ross, 1998) than those with low efficacy beliefs.
Social cognitive theory suggests that intellectual functioning and cognitive aspect need to be developed to allow regulation of people’s motivational, affective, and social determinants (Bandura, 1993). One key point from this theory is that the ability to choose and select appropriate strategies, and use them optimally rest heavily on the self- efficacy of teachers. Evidence shows that the possibility to create good classroom
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situation is partly determined by teachers’ beliefs in their instructional efficacy (Onafowora, 2005; Pajares, 1996). A study by Ghaith and Yaghi (1997) found strong and statistically significant relationships between teachers’ perceptions of instructional effectiveness and their attitudes toward the implementation of instructional innovation. Teachers' willingness to implement new instructional practices is one of the key factors influencing educational improvement (Chacón, 2005; Eslami & Fatahi, 2008). One of the variables that determines teachers’ willingness to implement instructional
innovation is teachers’ sense of efficacy (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007;
TschannenǦMoran & McMaster, 2009). A study by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) found that teachers with high efficacy are more widely to be effective in classrooms and they also appear to be the most receptive to the implementation of new instructional practices like those associated with mastery learning. Teachers with low efficacy beliefs, on the other hand, might be less effective and appear to be the least receptive to such implementation.
Teachers with high efficacy beliefs have also been shown to make good plans for student learning, set goals for their learning activities, and identify appropriate instructional strategies to achieve them (Allinder, 1994). A study by Coladarci (Coladarci, 1992) found that teachers with a high sense of instructional efficacy dedicate more time to academic learning than teachers with a low sense of instructional efficacy. In addition, teachers with high efficacy also provide students with help, including those who have difficulty in learning, and compliment students for their accomplishments during the learning process. In contrast, teachers with a low sense of instructional efficacy spend more time on non-academic aspects, give up more easily in difficult situations, and tend to blame others for their failures. Thus, teachers who have high instructional efficacy are able to generate more mastery experiences for their students (Deemer, 2004).
Classroom Management
Classroom management as used in this study refers to the wide variety of skills and techniques that teachers use to keep classroom organized, orderly, focused, and
29 academically productive during a class. When classroom-management strategies are executed effectively, teachers minimize the behaviours that impede learning and increase students’ learning achievement (Pressley & Allington, 2014).
The task of creating classrooms conducive to learning rests heavily on the talents and self-efficacy of teachers (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). That is why many teachers continue to see effective classroom management as a major concern and challenge
(O’Neill & Stephenson, 2012). Brouwers and Tomic (1999) define teachers’ sense of
efficacy in classroom management as “teachers’ beliefs in their capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to maintain classroom order” (p. 242).
Brouwers and Tomic (2000) indicate the importance of understanding classroom management as that skills will help teachers to manage their classroom practices. A study by Dibapile (2012) found that teachers need to apply different strategies in order to allow them to control destructive behavioral problems of students. Further, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) confirmed that positive efficacy allows teachers manage classroom behavior, stimulates student achievement, and enables them to help students with low motivation.
Teachers with high efficacy beliefs try to create a conducive classroom atmosphere and focus on student learning (Deemer, 2004). This implies that the use of mastery practices in classrooms is related positively to the level of personal teaching efficacy. Liu, Jack, and Chiu (2008) indicate that efficacious teachers work with appropriate management strategies, stimulate and assist low-achieving students, and set attainable learning goals for their students. Teachers with high efficacy beliefs can organize classrooms more effectively to achieve learning and good performance (Dibapile, 2012).
Student Engagement
Student engagement is frequently used to refer to students' willingness to participate in routine school activities, such as attending class, submitting required work, and following teachers' directions in class (Chapman, 2003). For the purpose of this study, the term student engagement refers to students’ cognitive, behavioral and affective
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dimensions in relation to their participation in academic-related activities (Badiozaman, 2012).
The level of teachers’ self-efficacy is related to their ability to engage students to learn.
A study by Woolfolk and Hoy (1990) indicates a correlation between beginning teachers’ self-efficacy and the way they manage and motivate students. Similarly, a study by Deemer (2004) indicates that less efficacious teachers often expend little effort in finding learning materials and making good plans for lessons that encourage students to engage in learning. Conversely, highly efficacious teachers tend to seek various learning resources to encourage students’ willingness to learn and develop more challenging lessons (Bandura, 1997; Pajares, 1996; Tschannen-Moran et al., 1998). Indeed, personal teaching efficacy impacts learning goals that teachers promote in their learning processes as a way to increase students’ willingness to engage and follow the lesson (Deemer, 2004).
Studies also have demonstrated that teachers with high efficacy beliefs put less emphasis on students’ weakness (Allinder, 1995), and work hard to help students with difficulties (Coladarci, 1992). Teachers with low efficacy beliefs are oriented toward using punitive management strategies that potentially demotivate students. In contrast, high efficacy teachers stimulate student autonomy, and try to build students’ responsibility (Deemer, 2004). Well-defined organizational structures in the classroom have also been found to promote student engagement and adaptive behaviour (McMahon, Wernsman, & Rose, 2009).
The ability to provide information to students rather than controlling them is seen as a
way to encourage students’ intrinsic motivation (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003).
Intrinsic motivation has been viewed as part of students’ behavioural dimension in relation to their participation in academic-related activities (Badiozaman, 2012). Teachers' orientations toward autonomy and control are related to students' intrinsic motivation and their approaches to solving classroom problems (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993). Linnenbrink and Pintrich further indicate that teachers with high efficacy are able to encourage students to do tasks or schoolwork. This is caused by the fact that efficacious students are much more likely to
31 be cognitively engaged than those who have lower self-efficacy beliefs. Teachers who perceive the need to encourage student autonomy and responsibility as ways to solve classroom problems tend to have students who are more intrinsically motivated and who solve problems more effectively (Woolfolk, Rosoff, & Hoy, 1990).