This section provides an overview of stages of the OS process. These stages represent the different phases that newcomers progress through as they learn and adjust to their new environment, and the resultant effects on socialisation outcomes.
The majority of earlier socialisation theorists and researchers view OS as a multistage process consisting of three main stages (phases) through which a newcomer transitions from an outsider to a fully functioning insider (Feldman, 1976; Feldman, 1981; Fisher, 1986; Van Maanen, 1978; Van Maanen & Schein, 1979; Wanous, 1992). Despite differences in terminology used to describe the different stages, these stage models of the socialisation process tend to be similar in terms of process and sequence (Bauer et al., 1998; Reichers, 1987). The three distinct stages (phases) of the OS process consist of: (1) a pre-encounter stage (“anticipatory” phase) that occurs prior to
organisational entry and when expectations are formed; (2) an encounter stage (“accommodation”
phase), when the newcomer enters the organisation, observes and experiences what the organisation is really like, and where expectations and reality are tested; and (3) lastly, an “adaptation” phase during which the newcomer adjusts, settles in and relatively long-lasting change occurs (e.g. Ardts et al., 2001; Bauer et al., 1998; Feldman, 1976; Feldman, 1981; Filstad, 2004; Garavan & Morley, 1997; Louis, 1980; Schein, 1978; Van Maanen, 1976). Griffith et al. (2006) designated these stages as “getting in”, “breaking in” and “settling in” respectively. Stage models of the socialisation process provide a systematic, theoretical framework that can be useful in understanding and conducting further empirical socialisation research (Feldman, 1976; Feldman, 1981). In addition, there is general agreement that the periods before organisational entry (pre-encounter) and on entering the organisation (encounter) are quite distinct and the nature and type of learning that takes place during these two stages is different (Fisher, 1986).
Although there is research that supports stage models of the socialisation process, it is important to note that there is a tendency to over generalise for all newcomers, jobs and organisations in terms of the sequence, duration and content of the different stages of the socialisation process (Fisher, 1986; Wanous, 1992; Wanous & Colella, 1989). The socialisation process does not always follow a fixed and sequential approach of a certain duration that consists of specific and standard content (Fisher, 1986). Notwithstanding this, stage models contribute to our understanding of the socialisation process. There is general agreement and research evidence supports the view that the pre-encounter and encounter phases perform a vital role in influencing newcomer learning and adjustment,
establishing the long lasting relationship between employee and employer, as newcomers adapt to their new environment, and in achieving OS outcomes (Ashford & Black, 1996; Buckley et al., 1998; Cooper-Thomas et al., 2004; Filstad, 2004; Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003, Kickul, 2001).
2.2.1 The Pre-encounter and Encounter Phases of Socialisation
The transition period prior to and soon after crossing an organisational boundary, such as the
‘outsider-to-insider’ passage that occurs during the pre-encounter and encounter phases of socialisation is critical, as adjustment is at its most intense and problematic for newcomers (Van Maanen & Schein, 1979). This is because the gap between newcomer perceptions and expectations of the organisation formed prior to entry and the actual reality experienced soon after joining the organisation is probably at its widest during this period (Fisher, 1986; Nicholson & Arnold, 1991). At the same time, most newcomer socialisation takes place during the early period before organisational entry and soon after organisational entry (Cooper-Thomas et al., 2004; Kammeyer- Mueller & Wanberg, 2003; Kickul, 2001). The learning and adjustment that take place during these two early stages have long lasting effects on the relationship between the new employee and the organisation and are also critical in achieving successful OS outcomes such as employee
performance and an organisation’s ability to retain staff (i.e. minimise voluntary turnover) (Allen &
Meyer, 1990; Chao et al., 1994; Cooper-Thomas & Anderson, 2002; Klein et al., 2006; Mitchell et al., 2001; Slattery et al., 2002).
The Pre-encounter Phase
As noted by Fisher (1976) “the socialization process begins even before employees enter the organization” (p.65). During the pre-encounter phase that occurs prior to organisational entry newcomers experience initial contact with the organisation and employees (e.g. during the employment process) (Ashford & Nurmohamed, 2012) and receive varying amounts of formal and informal information from different sources about their new job, the organisation and work group that influence their later adjustment and resultant outcomes (Bauer & Green, 1994; Carr et al., 2006; Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003; Klein et al., 2006). These sources of pre-encounter information that influence newcomer socialisation include interactions with organisational members (e.g. organisational insiders during the recruitment and selection processes) and additional information sources (e.g. friends and media) (Riordan et al., 2001; Rollag, 2004). The information newcomers are able to access and the experiences they are exposed to during the pre-encounter phase creates expectations about what the new environment will be like (e.g. job and organisation),
assists in preparing a newcomer for entry into the organisation and affects subsequent adjustment (Fisher, 1986; Klein et al., 2006). The more successful the pre-encounter phase of socialisation is in providing sufficient and accurate information, as well as creating realistic expectations, the easier it is for newcomers to make the transition into the new environment on entering the organisation and the quicker it is for newcomers to adjust (Fisher, 1986).
The Encounter Phase
The encounter phase represents the initial entrance point and early entry phase into the new organisation where newcomers first experience what life in the organisation is really like (Ashford & Nurmohamed, 2012). Most organisational socialisation theorists and researchers agree that the encounter phase of OS is a key stage for the newcomer as they become aware of the organisational context and they begin to explore their role in the organisation and start recognising and evaluating the gaps between their expectations and the reality they experience (De Vos et al., 2003; Jones, 1993).
On entering the organisation newcomers are exposed to new sources and different types of information, they are faced with the reality of what life in their new environment is really like and additional pressures are placed on them to get up to speed as quickly as possible (Fisher, 1986; Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003; Klein et al., 2006). At the same time learning is at its most intense during this phase as newcomers attempt to master the job and organisational related socialisation content required to adjust to their new environment (De Vos et al., 2003; Fisher, 1986; Klein et al., 2006). This is accompanied by newcomers likely experiencing high levels of uncertainty, some degree of disorientation, surprise and reality shock, and they will attempt to reduce uncertainty by trying to make sense of their new work environment and their place in it (Allen, 2006; Barge & Schleuter, 2004; Saks & Ashforth, 1997; Simosi, 2009). Typically, newcomers ask themselves the key question of “how do I fit in here?” as they face the reality of confronting and adjusting to their new environment (Barge & Schlueter, 2004; Cable & Parsons, 2001; Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003).
According to Reichers (1987), the encounter phase ends when newcomer anxiety is reduced and the meanings newcomers and insiders attach to organisational life is similar. The importance of the encounter phase of the socialisation process is supported by research that shows that newcomer attitudes and behaviours during the early period after entry are highly correlated with those many months later and influence the success of newcomer adjustment during the socialisation process (e.g. Cooper-Thomas et al., 2004; Morrison, 1993a; Saks & Ashforth, 1997; Wanous, 1992).
In summary, the pre-encounter phase and the encounter phase of socialisation are quite distinct and each of these phases play a critical role in determining the success of newcomer adjustment as they go through the process of learning to adapt to their new environment (Cooper-Thomas et al., 2004; Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003; Kickul, 2001).
2.2.2 Adaptation Phase and Outcomes of the Organisational Socialisation Process
The adaptation phase is the period of the socialisation process when the newcomer has undergone most of the learning required while adjusting to their new environment, they have to a large degree settled in and made significant progress in transitioning from outsider to becoming a fully functioning insider (Feldman, 1976; Fisher, 1986). This phase is characterised by newcomers having familiarised themselves with new tasks, clarified their roles in the organisation, learnt about
‘the way things are done’ in the organisation and integrated into the work group (Feldman, 1976;
Fisher, 1986). Specific indicators of successful newcomer adaptation is reflected in the degree to which socialisation content is mastered and is assessed against criteria related to the job, work group and organisation (Chao et al., 1994; Klein et al., 2006). More specifically, role clarity, task mastery, social integration, job satisfaction, organisational knowledge, organisational commitment and intention to quit/remain are consistently viewed by researchers as indicators of successful newcomer adaptation to their new environment that represent socialisation outcomes of the socialisation process (Bauer et al., 2007; Saks et al., 2007).
A fairly recent development in the OS literature is to differentiate between two categories of socialisation outcomes, namely “proximal” (primary) outcomes that are direct indicators of
newcomer learning and adjustment occurring early in the OS process, and “distal” (secondary) outcomes that are influenced and are subsequent results of the more “proximal” outcomes (Bauer et
al., 2007; Carr et al., 2006; Gruman et al., 2006; Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003; Saks et al., 2007). A breakdown of proximal outcomes obtained from examining socialisation research literature identifies four key, salient proximal outcomes that are indicators of successful newcomer adjustment (Bauer et al., 2007; Fang et al., 2011; Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003; Morrison, 2002; Saks et al., 2007). These are: (1) role clarity (understanding job responsibilities and relationships in relation to other jobs and the organisational context); (2) social integration (inclusion and fitting in with the work group); (3) task mastery (knowing how to perform in relation to the requirements of the job); and (4) organisational knowledge (knowledge of the organisations culture, history, structures and policies). These proximal outcomes are consistent with the four key content domains of job/task related factors, role factors, group factors and organisational factors
highlighted in the socialisation literature as representing important outcomes of newcomer learning and adjustment (Feldman, 1981; Fisher, 1986; Morrison, 2002; Ostroff & Kozlowski, 1992). Distal outcomes are reflected in attitudinal indicators and behavioural intentions (Bauer et al, 2007; Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003; Saks et al., 2007). The distal outcomes most frequently associated with the proximal outcomes of newcomer adjustment include job satisfaction, organisational commitment, job performance and intention to quit/remain (Bauer et al., 2007; Saks et al., 2007).
The results of Bauer et al.’s (2007) and Saks et al.’s (2007) meta-analyses on newcomer adjustment and outcomes indicates that socialisation research should differentiate between proximal and distal outcomes and the primary focus should initially be on the proximal indicators of newcomer adjustment, since socialisation activities have a direct impact on these variables first, and on the resultant distal outcomes thereafter. According to Reio and Callahan (2004) proximal outcomes focus on how and why newcomers learn, while distal outcomes emphasise what newcomers learn, and understanding the relationship between the two types of outcomes is important. Despite recent calls to focus on both proximal and distal outcomes of the OS process, the primary emphasis of socialisation research continues to be on individual level, distal outcomes of newcomer adjustment, such as job satisfaction, organisational commitment and intention to quit, to the neglect of the preceding proximal outcomes that lead to the more distal outcomes (Ashforth et al., 2007; Bauer et al., 2007; Haueter, Macan & Winter, 2003; Kammeyer-Mueller & Wanberg, 2003; Klein & Weaver, 2000; Saks et al., 2007; Wanberg & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2000).
2.3 THE ROLE OF ORGANISATIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL SOCIALISATION