Publicada en el Registro Oficial No 245 del 30 de julio de
CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES
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Agricultural Value Chain and
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through skill acquisition and apprenticeship, there seems to be marginal gain over the years.
This study therefore seeks to examine the trend in the number of returnee irregular migrant and the economic opportunities provided by agricultural value chain in Edo State.
Background Issues
Table 1: Number of Returnee Irregular Migrants between 2011 and 2016 in Edo State
Years 2011 2014 2013 2014 2015 2016
Numbers 258 116 96 155 166 233
Figure 1: Trend in Number of Returnee Irregular Migrants to Edo State (2011 & 2016)
Source: NAPTIP, 2011-2016.
From Table 1 and Figure 1, it can be observed that there was a significant reduction in the number of returnee irregular migrant between 2011 and 2013. That is, from about 258 persons in 2011 to about 116 persons and 96 persons in 2012 and 2013 respectively. This does not in actual fact means that the number of individuals involved in the act fell; rather, it is attributed to some of the challenges faced by the NAPTIP in meeting its core mandates. Some of these challenges includes; poor funding and ineptitude on the part of some of its staff (NAPTIP, 2016). However, between 2014 and 2016, there was increase in the number of recorded returnee irregular migrants from 96 persons in 2013 to 155, 166 and 233 in 2014, 2015 and 2016 respectively.
Table 2 and Figure 2 show that there is an increase in the number of returnee irregular migrants of age bracket 17 & below and 18 & above. Specifically on the average, age bracket 17 and below accounted for the largest number of returnee irregular migrant compared to age bracket 18 and above between the period 2004 and 2016. The number of age bracket 17 and below exhibited high level of variations with its peak of 708 persons in 2014.
Table 2: Age Distribution of Returnee Irregular Migrants to Edo State between 2004 & 2016 Age 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 17&B 28 126 147 354 691 440 524 443 381 591 708 426 481 18&A 45 195 152 410 443 506 477 515 368 373 322 468 533
1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 2200 2250 2300
1 2 3 4 5 6
Series2 Series1
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Unclass 4 15 67 143 48 11 14 18 0 0 0 0 3
Figure 2: Trend in Age Distribution of Returnee Irregular Migrants to Edo State (2004
& 2016)
Source: NAPTIP and NIS, 2016. A, B & Unclass : Above, Below and Unclassified respectively.
Though, age bracket of 18 and above exhibited a similar pattern, there were reductions in the number of returnee irregular migrants between the age range of 18 and 27, and 28 and above.
However, a further decomposition of the age bracket shows that, persons within age range of 18-24 recorded the highest number of returnee irregular migrants, followed by age bracket 12 -17. Also, more males within the age bracket 17 and below were recorded compared to male adults between age brackets 18-27. There was also a little disparity between the number of female between age 17 and below compared to adult female of age 18 and above. It is against this background that the study will examine how agricultural value chain can help in the economic empowerment of returnee irregular migrants in Edo State.
Empirical Literature
PricewaterhouseCoopers (Pwc) (2014) report examines agricultural value chain, using cocoa and dairy as case study in Nigeria. Respondents were drawn from farmers, processors and industry experts in cocoa and dairy industries from the South West and Northern part of Nigeria. Data were descriptively analysed and presented. It was revealed that Nigeria's agriculture sector requires massive investments to increase production and create value addition across segments of the value chain. The report recommends ways to upgrade key segments of the value chain, based on practices adopted by leading agriculture producers and agro- processing economies.
Olukunle (2013) investigated income and employment generation from cassava value chain in the Nigerian agricultural sector. Primary data were collected and analysed descriptively in frequency distribution, percentages and measures of central tendency. The results showed that increased income and employment can be generated through cassava value chain enhancement especially at the stages of production, processing and industrial utilisation. It was then recommended that policies towards development of cassava value chain should include investment in infrastructure in rural areas. Similarly, Awoyinka (2009) investigated
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
17Yrs & Below 18Yrs & Above Unclassified
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effectiveness of cassava marketing policy and its contribution to agricultural sector development in Nigeria. The study observed that policy design has potential contributions to agricultural development in Nigeria. It was suggested that sustainable policy issues and options for cassava marketing requires different strategies for both domestic and international markets to curtail the problems confronting cassava marketing in Nigeria.
Also, Izevbigie (2019) examined the case of undocumented migration and sexual exploitation in Edo State, Nigeria. Primary data comprising questionnaires and interview were employed to elicit relevant information from 306 respondents. The result found that the crave and proportion of those involved in the illicit act of undocumented migration and cross border sexual exploitation in Edo State is high and skewed towards the female folks. In the light of the findings, recommendations that incorporate relevant stakeholders in action/steps such as active advocacy programmes, responsive and responsible government were put forward. Similarly, Amrevurayire and Ojeh (2016) assessed the consequences of migration on the source region of Ughievwen clan in Ughelli South Local Government Area of Delta State. Stratified sampling technique was used to divide the study area into four zones. Primary data were generated through the administration of questionnaires using the systematic sampling approach, while the secondary data emanated from journal/publications and official gazette. The data generated were analysed using multiple regression statistics. It was found that females indulge more in migration compared to males. Also, it was found that those mainly involved in the act of migration fall within the age bracket of 15 and 35 years and migration is informed by socio-economic, demographic and cultural factors. Thus, it was recommended that functional social basic amenities and infrastructural facilities be provided in migrant home country.
Though, there are a number of similar research works in the literature, most of these studies focused on agricultural development and/or migration and the Nigeria economy without taking a look at specific state of the federation. More so, to the best of my knowledge, there exist scanty studies that paid keen attention to economic opportunities provided through agricultural value addition in Edo State.
Value Chain Analysis in Agricultural Activities
Agricultural value chain refers to the entire range of activities necessary for an agricultural product to move from production to the final consumer. It also referred to value addition in various activities (farm and the non-farming activities) involved in the processing of agricultural input to the final consumer. Agricultural value chain involves varied players linked together along a chain producing and delivering product to consumers through a sequence of activities (FAO, 2016). Agricultural development measures should aim not only to create green jobs through sustainable farming practices but makes them beneficial to practitioner. This is because participatory value chain helps to distribute roles among the various actors in the chain (FAO, 2014).
Agricultural value chain comprises; development and dissemination of plant and animal genetic material, input supply, farm organization, farm production, post-harvest handling, processing, provision of technology for production, handling and grading, cooling and packing technology, post-harvest processing, industrial processing, storage, transport, finance, and feedback from markets (FAO, 2016). Other activities involved includes; receiving, storing and distributing of inputs, procession of input into output, distribution to consumers, advertising, promotions, sales-force organization, distribution channels, pricing, managing the final product to ensure it gets to the appropriate consumer groups, training, maintenance, after-sale services and a host of other support activities.
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Figure 3. Simplified Vertical Integration in Typical Agricultural Value Chain Farm accessories and implements manufacturing/sales
↓ Actual Farming
↓ Sales of Output/Traders
↓
Wholesalers (Primary and Secondary Wholesaler)
↓
Transportation (Distribution Channels and after Sales Service) ↓ ↓
Domestic Consumption Industrial Processing, Branding and Repackaging ↓
Exports Source: Author
Figure 3 shows a simplified vertical integration in a typical agricultural value chain. The Table shows a chronological link in the various stages in agricultural value chain. It begins with farm accessories and implements manufacturing/sales which involves a lot of activities that does not involve actual farming. This is followed by actual farming activities and its management which usually have a gestation period which varies base on the type of farming activity. Following this is the sales of produce. Here, there is high level of trading activities between farmers and middlemen comprising those that buy directly from the producers/farmers (primary middlemen) and those that buy from the primary middlemen that is, secondary middlemen. The middlemen take the responsibility of transporting the produce through suitable channels to the consumers for consumption and the industrial sector for further processing. The middlemen working closely with the distribution channels ensure that the produce gets to the end user in good condition. Lastly, the industry further process the produce, brand and repackage them for either domestic consumption or export.
Figure 4: Simplified depiction of the stages of a value chain for dairy products Input → calves, heifers, fodder, grazing areas ↓
Production → breeding dairy Cow, milking ↓
Processing → dairy, dairy product, packaging ↓
Trade → storage, advertising, brand management ↓
Sales → wholesale and retail
Source: Adopted from Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) (2013).
To clearly illustrate the various stages in a typical agricultural value chain activities, Figure 4 shows the various stages and the activities involve for dairy products. This involves input, production, processing, trade and sales. Moving from one stage to the other in the value chain requires an additional actor(s) who provide inputs in the form of product components or services. These actors usually have buyer-seller relationship and could be in same or different geographical location. The point here is that all the parties involved plays varied support roles in the chain process.
187 Theoretical Framework
The Social Network Theory gained popularity in the 1990s and it is one of the theories that explain value addition in agriculture. The social network approach views actors in the value chain as embedded in a complex of horizontal and vertical support relationships. Here, relationships among the various players in the chain are influenced by economic and non-economic considerations (Uzzi 1997). This theory applies to a variety of levels of analysis from small groups to entire global systems. It focuses on ties among, for example, individuals, persons, organizations, and countries. The ties can represent friendship, buyer-seller relationship, contracts, certifications, cooperation, and so on. The main goal of social network analysis is detecting and interpreting patterns of social ties among actors. How actors interact together along the value chain is interpreted on the basis of who are the actors and how they are interconnected.
A network is basically composed of the entities (actors, vertices, and nodes), the link between these entities and their characteristics (edges), the profile of each entity and the characteristic of the link between each entity. Network relations among the various stakeholders in the chain often facilitates ease of access to information, technical know-how, knowledge transfer, cost reduction, access to market and credit (Coleman 1990; Burt 1997; Humphrey & Schmitz 2002;
Gulati, 1998). Some key points of social network theory include; closeness, number of connections, betweenness, centrality, homophily, network density amongst others. Other theories in this light include; global value chain analysis (Gereffi 1999), supply chain management (Bowersox & Closs 1996) and new institutional economics (Williamson 1985).
Similarly, one of the earliest theories of migration is the neoclassical theory (Harris & Todaro, 1970; Todaro 1997). This theory is macroeconomic in nature and particularly addresses the labor market dimension of migration. The neoclassical theory of migration posits that the individual migrant based his choice to migrate on maximizing his utility. This is based on the assumption that wage differences and employment opportunities within and among countries exert huge influence on migration. The perceived earnings in the host community/country increased the likelihood to migrate. Todaro (1969) proposes a framework where the migrants discount wages by the probability of finding a job in alternative regions. Throughout the decision making process, each individual compares the expected (rather than observed) income level to be attain to the one in home region (i) with the expected income to be obtain in the alternative region (j) and further accounts for ’transportation costs’ of moving from region i to j. This framework was however formalize by Harris and Todaro (1970) with the setting up of a model where the expected income from staying in the region of residence YiiE is a function of the wage rate/ income in region i (Yi) and the probability of being employed.
Though there exist other theories such as push-pull theory of migration exposed by Ravenstein (1885) and new economics of labour Migration Theory associated with Stark (1991), this study however hinged on the Social Network Theory and Neo-classical Theory of Migration. This is because both theories explain and provide a linkage between agricultural value chain and migration.
Methodology
This study employed primary data obtained through questionnaire and interview (with open and close ended questions) with respondents randomly selected from the municipal local government areas of Edo State using purposive sampling technique. This was carried out during stakeholders-irregular migrant returnees’ meetings/interface held at designated centre
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in the state. Besides, 12 returned irregular migrant (four from each of the municipal local government areas) were randomly selected and interviewed in other to get one-on-one in-depth information from them. These responses were thereafter descriptively analysed. The inclusion criteria are permanent male and female returnee adult migrant resident in the State and while unwillingness to participate, non-permanent resident and male and female below age 18 constitute the exclusion criteria.
Population and Sample Size
Approximately 600 returnee adult irregular migrant are domiciled within the city centre of Edo State (NAPTIP, 2017). From this number, a total of 240 (about 40%) questionnaires were administered. This was determined using Taro Yamane formula for a finite population stated as;
n = __N____
1 + N (f)2 where;
n = sample size N = Finite population F = level of significance
Using N as 600 and f as 5%, we substitute into the formula as follows;
n = 600________ → n = 600/1+1.5 → n = 600/2.5 → n = 240 1 + 600 (0.05)2
Presentation and Interpretation of Result
Though a total of two hundred and forty (240) questionnaires were administered, two hundred and thirty five (235) were actually analysed. A brief counsel on the need for respondent to freely respond to issues raise in the questionnaires and the ease of monitoring respondents which the point of administration of the questionnaires provided resulted in a high rate of filled and returned questionnaires.
(a) Analysis of Responses from Questionnaires Table 3. Gender Distribution of Respondents
Gender Number Percentages
Male 180 77
Female 55 23
Total 235 100
Source: Field Survey, Benin City, 2017
Table 3 shows the gender distribution of respondents. They are made up of 180 male which represent about 77 percent of the entire sample population and 55 female representing about 23 percent.
Table 4. Predisposing factors promoting Irregular Migration
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Factors Number Percentage
Unemployment 90 38
Illiteracy/Ignorance 20 9
Parental Influence 55 23
Poverty 50 21
None of the above 0 0
All above 20 9
Total 235 100
Source: Field Survey, Benin City, 2017
Table 4 shows the predisposing factors for irregular migration. From the Table, unemployment accounted for the highest factor with 90 respondents. This represented about 38 percent of the sampled population. Meanwhile, 20 respondents routed for illiteracy/ignorance representing about 9 percent of the sampled population while 55 respondents opted for parental pressure/influence which also represent about 23 percent of the sampling population. In addition, 50 persons routed for poverty. This represents about 21 percent of the sampled population. Lastly, 20 respondents opted for all the aforementioned factors, that is, unemployment, illiteracy/ignorance, parental influence and poverty. The responses of the respondent attest to the relevance of the aforementioned factors as no respondents routed for none of the factors.
Table 5. Awareness and Willingness to indulge in Agricultural Value Chain Activities
Option Number Percentage
Yes 171 73
No 59 25
Indecisive 5 2
Total 235 100
Source: Field Survey, Benin City, 2017
Table 5. shows the willingness of respondent to indulge in varied forms of Agricultural value chain activities. It can be observed from the Table that 171 respondents were in the affirmative, that is, they were willing to indulge in agricultural value chain activities as a means of livelihood. This number of respondent constituted about 73 percent of the sample population.
Also, 59 respondents stated otherwise. This represents about 25 percent of the sampling population. Also, 5 respondents representing about 5 percent of the sampling population were indecisive.
Table 6. Preferences for Varied Agricultural Value Chain Activities
Measures Number Percentage
Plant and Animal material
Production/sales 36 15
Plant and Animal Production/Farming 68 29
Post-Harvest Handling, Grading and
Packaging 40 17
Pricing and Management of Final Output 40 17
Distribution and After Sales Service 51 22
Total 235 100
Source: Field Survey, Benin City, 2017
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Table 6 shows that 36 respondents indicated interest in plant and animal material production and sales. This represented about 15 percent of the sampling population. It can also be observed from Table 6 that 68 respondents indicated interest in plant and animal production. This was broken into various crops production such as oil palm, cassava, plantain plantation and animal husbandry. This represented about 29 percent of the sampling population. Others include post-harvest handling, grading and packaging; and pricing and management of final output with 40 respondents representing about 17 percent each. Lastly, 51 respondents indicated interest in product distribution and after sales service. This also represented about 22 percent.
(b) Analysis of Responses from Interview
Table 7 and 8 shows the responses of the interview granted by twelve (12) returnee irregular migrants within the three municipal local government areas of the state.
Table 7. Formal Educational Qualification
Education Level Number
Primary 2
Post-primary 6
Tertiary 4
Total 12
Source: Interviews with respondent, Benin City, 2017
Table 7 shows the level of formal education of interviewed returnee irregular migrants to Edo State extraction. Of the twelve (12) persons interviewed, two (2) persons opined that they attained primary school. Also, the Table showed that six (6) persons highest level of education was secondary school leaving certificate while four (4) persons opined that they attended and graduated from institution of higher learning.
Table 8. Awareness and Willingness to Indulge in Agricultural Related Activities through Agricultural Value Chain
Option Number
Yes 12
No 0
Total 12
Source: Interviews with respondents, Benin City, 2017
Table 8 shows returnee irregular migrants’ willingness to indulge in varied agricultural value chain activities. From the Table, it can be observed that the twelve (12) returnee irregular migrant interviewed indicated interest in varied forms of agricultural value chain activities as a means of livelihood.
Summary of Findings and Recommendations
From the analysis, the following constitute the key findings:
(i) There is high rate of returnee irregular migrants in Edo State.
(ii) Unemployment, parental influence and poverty constitute the major motivating factors for irregular migration in Edo State.
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(iii)Most of the returnee irregular migrants indicated interest in varied forms of agricultural value chain activities
In the light of the above, the following are recommended:
1. Edo State government should as a matter of urgency engage returnee irregular migrants in agricultural value chain activities.
2. Based on the above, farm settlement schemes should be established in most parts of the state.
3. Participants should be encouraged to form cooperatives societies in other to enable them achieve the gains of collective efforts.
4. To ensure effectiveness and inclusiveness, public private partnership (PPP) model comprises finance banks and other stakeholders in agribusiness should be put in place.
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