CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES

The demand for rhino horn from Asia and the Middle East persists and the threat of a return to large-scale poaching is ever present. Ecotourism is the most obvious and least controversial use of rhino. It offers benefits such as job and wealth creation to local communities as well as to rhino conservation. Ecotourism can only assist in conservation of the natural environment if it provides some benefits, tangible or otherwise, for the local people who are in a position to protect that environment (Buckley 2003).

The IUCN/SSC African Rhino Specialist Group (AfRSG) rates the Kunene black rhino population as a Key 1 population due to the fact that the population represents the largest free ranging desert ecotype population in the world. The population is also the only viable black rhino population worldwide to have survived on communal land lacking any formal conservation status. The population serves as a strategic flagship resource both for the conservation of biological diversity and for improving livelihoods through ecotourism. The Kunene region is the perfect area where the benefits from the increasing tourist market can be realized, due to the low human density and a unique, scenic landscape.

This population is, however, also vulnerable to forms of human disturbance that negatively impact on rhino behaviour and which could be detrimental to the population as

a whole. The conservation of black rhinos is based on the need to prevent extinction due to human-induced changes and to maintain the evolutionary potential of the species (Du Preez 2000).

According to Newsome, Dowling & Moore (2002) there are two streams of thought regarding the environment-tourism relationship. The first stream of thought is that the natural environment is harmed by tourism and the second that the two have the potential to work together in a symbiotic manner where each adds to the other. Both of these points of view can be adopted and defended but the way to increase the compatibility of the two stances is to understand, plan and manage that which is grounded in environmental concepts, and to allow simultaneously for compatible sustainable development. The only means to achieve this is the protection of environmental quality by protecting the environment and yet have the realisation of the potential of tourism.

The main question that stemmed from the literature was how to identify the reciprocal impacts between ecotourism in a pristine natural environment, such as the Kunene region in Namibia, and an important flagship species, such as the black rhino.

6.3 Human-induced disturbance of black rhino

The hypothesis tested was that sustainable ecotourism has a detrimental influence on the spatial behaviour of black rhinos. Black rhino behaviour and responses to the presence of human activities were taken into consideration in order to attempt to prove or disprove the prediction hypothesis. The effects of human-induced disturbance on spatial movement patterns of black rhinos in the Palmwag Concession Area and the Torra and #Khoadi-//Hoas Conservancies were therefore investigated.

6.3.1 Effects of human-induced disturbance on spatial movement patterns of black rhinos Results indicate that 65% of the observed black rhinos changed their normal behaviour and only 23% returned to unaware behaviour after being disturbed. Observer noise caused displacement on 75% of the observations and the reaction during observation was to run away (61%), which was deemed the most extreme reaction to disturbance. The results raised a number statistical hypotheses about black rhino behaviour. Analysis of black rhino behaviour also indicated that initial behaviour does determine a change in behaviour. Black rhinos were more easily disturbed when their activities included lying down or standing and they were less likely to be disturbed when they were walking or browsing. There was no significant difference with regard to group composition or the presence of other animals in relation to a change in behaviour.

Finally, the influence that human presence might have on black rhinos was analysed. Results from observer group size were inconclusive due to insufficient variation in numbers. Observer group size remained similar throughout the study period. The cause of displacement was also inconclusive, due to most of the observations taking place downwind of the rhino. The results did indicate, however, that most disturbances occurred early in observations and animals returned to unaware behaviour as time passed. The reaction towards human presence was measured, but no significant difference in reaction could be determined among animals that were displaced.

6.3.2. Human-induced disturbance of black rhinos in study sites

The results indicate that there was no statistically significant change in behaviour between the study sites. There were differences in the distance at which rhinos became aware of observers and at which they were displaced. Exponential trends indicated that there was a 14% rate of increase in the distance when rhinos became aware of observers and the distance at which rhino were displaced increased at a rate of 16% between the study sites. The Springbok River emerged as the study site with the most aware rhinos

and those most easily displaced. The reaction of rhinos to disturbance, however, proved that the Springbok River and Aub/Barab populations had the most severe reaction to disturbance. This was measured in terms of number of animals displaced by running away and the distance they were displaced. Poacher’s Camp had the least severe reaction and the Klip River results were deemed to be insignificant due to the small number of animals studied. The final measure of disturbance was the ranging pattern differences of the respective study areas. There was a definite difference in home ranges between the study areas. The differences were caused by a combination of human and environmental factors.

The conclusion with regard to the hypothesis that sustainable ecotourism has a detrimental influence on the spatial behaviour of the black rhino was accepted. Rhinos in this study were easily disturbed and did not readily return to undisturbed behaviour. Their response to disturbance was to run away, which was the greatest level of disturbance. Their disturbance was determined by their initial activity when found and the majority of disturbances occurred early in observations. Rhinos had similar causes of disturbance throughout the study sites. The Springbok River emerged as the area with the most severe reactions to disturbance. This was supported by the home ranges of the rhinos and ecological constraints.

6.4 Contribution of black rhino tracking to sustainable community-based