This study was conducted as a thesis by publication, meaning that the five central thesis chapters have been published (or submitted for publication) in national and international peer-reviewed journals prior to submission of the actual thesis.
The thesis is made up of an introduction, a research approach chapter, five data chapters and a conclusion. Linking sections between each of the data chapters are provided to introduce and elaborate the context for following chapters. The linking sections are designed to ensure flow and cohesion among the data chapters as well as provide further literature as introductory segments to following chapters. The sixth linking section is different, as it provides a succint summary of key findings as a lead into the concluding chapter of this thesis. The references list follows, as well as appendices which include interview guidelines, interview information sheets and consent forms as well as published articles from the thesis. The following is an outline of the chapters in this thesis;
Introduction
Chapter one Research approach Linking section
Chapter two An analysis of rangatahi Māori uses of social networking sites
Linking section
Chapter three Virtual whanaungatanga: Māori using social networking sites to attain and maintain relationships Linking section
Chapter four Māori identity construction in SNS Linking section
Investigating the potential and pitfalls of virtualising Māori cultural practices and rituals
Linking section
Chapter six Kanohi ki te kanohi – a thing of the past? Examining the notion of „virtual‟ ahikā and the implications for kanohi ki te kanohi
Linking section Conclusion
References list Appendices
Each chapter (excluding the research approach) presents a range of issues and ideas that are deconstructed and discussed with participants‟ responses providing new insights and interpretations around how Māori use of SNS can be understood.
Research approach
The research approach is made up of three strands that incorporate distinct Māori philosophies, lived experiences and values. These three strands are; kaupapa Māori46; my personal background as a Taranaki woman and; te reo Māori me ōna tikanga – all of which come under a framework entitled „Titiro ki muri, haere whakamua‟. This whakataukī47
represents the importance of traditions and heritage as a guide to future pathways. The research approach is central to the entire thesis and has informed the ways in which the research has been conducted and the data analysed and interpreted.
An analysis of rangatahi Māori uses of social networking sites
This chapter will provide a descriptive analysis of how rangatahi are using SNS. SNS have changed the ways in which we communicate and connect with others, forming new ways of; communicating; building relationships; accessing information; and
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kaupapa Māori – philosophies and values. This concept is heavily discussed in the research approach chapter
being self-expressive. While much of the literature around SNS looks at social impacts, little research exists around Māori use of SNS. Rangatahi Māori are finding new ways of connecting and communicating through Facebook profile pages and are faced with new challenges of online/offline variations and protocols that become blurred - particularly in online spaces. This chapter will explore rangatahi Māori use of SNS in ways that enhance, adapt and challenge ways of self-expression, ways of communicating with whānau, maintenance of relationships and ways of accessing information. This chapter works as an introduction to the central themes and aims to raise the underlying issues of SNS use. Many of the issues raised in this chapter are subsequently explored in following chapters in more depth and breadth.
Virtual whanaungatanga: Māori using social networking sites to attain and maintain relationships
Whanaungatanga is identified as a common theme amongst rangatahi Māori use of SNS. This chapter explores how participants‟ negotiated and managed relationships online. Increased use of SNS by Māori is providing alternative methods for forging and maintaining relationships. This process of whanaungatanga becomes more accessible for kin (as well as those connected through common purpose) to engage and interact with each other. Whanaungatanga appears to be expanding in its sphere of application to include virtual spaces in ways that may influence the dynamics, relevance and impacts of its practice. This chapter firstly discusses the concept of whanaungatanga, drawing on a range of meanings from both customary and contemporary perspectives. Secondly, an analysis of virtual whanaungatanga in SNS focussing on how relationships are attained and maintained is presented and the implications explored.
Māori identity construction in SNS
Māori cultural identity is also a prominent theme in the datasets, providing insights on ways in which the constitutive processes operate online. Whakapapa, language and cultural knowledge were acquired within traditional spaces (such as the marae) and passed down visually and orally through generations. What is clear in the literature is that aspects of culture are no longer restricted to oral traditions or to the marae space and are increasingly becoming normalised in virtual spaces such as the Internet and SNS. Access to knowledge and information through the Internet and SNS now provides alternative methods to finding out, learning more and engaging with aspects of Māori cultural identity. This chapter builds on the first and second data chapters by delving deeper into notions of Māori cultural identity and the role SNS plays in constructing or forming such identities. The chapter addresses notions of Māori cultural identity using a set of cultural identity markers (M. H. Durie, 1995a) to guide data analysis and highlight ways in which Māori identity is formed and constructed using SNS.
Virtual tangihanga, virtual tikanga: Investigating the potential and pitfalls of virtualising Māori cultural practices and rituals
Moving into the area of the customs and protocols of Māori institutions, this chapter focuses on how Māori practices work in SNS. Tangihanga are being broadcast in SNS via photos, video and notices, expanding from their traditional space of practice, the marae. Accessing tangihanga through SNS provides those who are unable to return for the event, the opportunity to farewell their loved ones. Experiences of virtual tangihanga are discussed using the viewpoints of rangatahi, pahake48 and kaumātua through an analysis of how tikanga is practised online to
highlight the implications for marae and the roles of the marae.
Kanohi ki te kanohi – a thing of the past? Examining the notion of ‘virtual’ ahikā and the implications for kanohi ki te kanohi
Following on from the idea of virtual tikanga, this chapter focuses on virtual forms of ahikā and draws from a rich database of responses from Māori living abroad and their efforts to keep connected to their ahikā in new and innovative ways. The Māori concept of ahikā was once a necessary part of asserting one‟s mana whenua49 over customary territories. If ahikā was not exercised over land, that land would be open for others to take and use. Physical presence and continued occupation was therefore required in order to exercise ahikā over land. The notion of ahikā has significantly changed as new ideas developed to encompass a steadily increasing national and international Māori diaspora with more Māori living away from their tribal boundaries, lands and waterways. This chapter investigates the tensions and challenges that Māori living away from home face in the maintenance of ahikā, illuminating the pressures on the deeply held values and practices of kanohi ki te kanohi. A key aim is to provide greater understanding around the significance of kanohi ki te kanohi and its place in modern Māori society particularly in the context of new technologies such as SNS. This chapter ties all of the previous chapters together through discussion of kanohi ki te kanohi and its importance and place in modern Māori society.
Conclusion
The concluding chapter provides an overview and synthesis of the research findings and discusses broader considerations in relation to SNS and Māori. It also explores
possible pathways for development around SNS, Māori and communities in light of the findings, issues and concerns. Suggestions are framed as recommendations and are targeted at specific audiences such as, researchers, rangatahi Māori, marae communities and haukāinga50. The chapter concludes with personal reflections of the research itself; the process, challenges and revelations experienced throughout the research journey.
Summary
In summary, Māori have enthusiastically adopted and adapted technologies to enhance and advance their cultural aims and aspirations. In the 21st Century and modern society, there is an increasing need to hold on to and preserve culture and language as many pressures force Māori further away from their cultural heritage and roots. SNS have been and will continue to play an integral role in Māori social life. This means that iwi, hapū and marae will be faced with the challenge of shifting values-based practices and rituals to the virtual space to empower their people with the ability and access to participate and engage. Undoubtedly this will come as a challenge, and will have implications for ways of being (kanohi ki te kanohi) and ways of knowing for generations to come.
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haukāinga - home, home people, local people of the marae. Haukāinga refer to both place and people. Haukāinga as a place is considered home, haukāinga as a people are considered those who look after home, inclusive of the marae, they are the core group who tend to the fires of home. The context of its use in this thesis varies between the two definitions expressed here.