Scientific name: Oenothera biennis
Also known as flor de Santa Rita, German rampion, fever plant, night willow-herb, scabish, sun drop, fever-plant, weedy evening-primrose, hog weed, king’s cure-all
Evening Primros e, Oenothera biennis
Co urte s y o f Ka re l Ja kub e c
Evening primrose is a tall wildflower that is native to the United States. It is also found in Europe and parts of Asia. The flowers open in the evening, hence the name. The fleshy, turnip-like root used to be eaten as a table vegetable, much like potatoes are today.594 Oil extracted from the seeds is the part of the plant most commonly used medicinally. Evening primrose is hardy in any location with enough sun to suit its tastes, so much so that it has become an invasive plant in some parts of the U.S.
Evening primrose is grown commercially in more than fifteen countries because of the oil found in its seeds.595 The oil in the mature seeds contain 7–10% gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), an omega-6 essential fatty acid with anti-inflammatory properties.596 Evening primrose oil (EPO) also contains about 50–70% cis-linoleic acid, which can be converted by the body into GLA. EPO has become a common alternative to the borage oil as a source of GLA. Borage oil contains about double the concentration of GLA as EPO, and it’s generally cheaper, but it also contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids, which are toxic to the liver. For that reason EPO is becoming the more common GLA supplement.597
What is it g ood for?
Cardiovascular health. This is not a traditional use, but a modern one. Supposedly EPO—more specifically the GLA in EPO—alters the lipid levels in the body in such as way as to benefit cardiovascular health. We have animal studies that suggest a rationale behind this use. In rats, supplementation with EPO lowered the LDL cholesterol levels.598 EPO lowered both cholesterol and body weight in a second animal study where rats were fed a high cholesterol diet.599 It reduced platelet aggregation (the formation of blood clots) in rabbits fed an atherogenic diet (one that would normally cause their arteries to become lined with fatty deposits). As such, it shows potential in reducing the conditions that lead to arteriosclerosis and thrombotic strokes.600 In two other studies using rabbits, EPO helped undo some of the negative effects of a high fat diet.601 In short, at this point what we have is a significant number of artificially fat rats and rabbits benefiting from EPO. Human trials are lacking.
Arthritis. One common use for EPO is to treat the inflammation associated with arthritis. Again, this is a modern use with little traditional backing. We do know that EPO contains lipophilic triterpenoidal esters, compounds that have scavenging and anti-inflammatory properties.602 What we don’t know is the mechanism by which EPO suppresses inflammation in the human body.603 Clinical studies at this point are small. Several small studies show reduction in symptoms.604 Others show no benefits.605
Wounds and sores . The Navajo used it on sores.606 Early American settlers used it for hemorrhoids, sore throat, and bruises.607 The 1918 U.S. Dispensatory notes that a decoction can be used for eruptive skin diseases.608 It is also approved for treating eczema and atopic dermatitis in several countries.609 As we’ve already noted, EPO has some anti-inflammatory properties.610 A single in vitro study also shows that compounds in EPO have fungicidal properties611 though a second study showed no antimicrobial effect at all.612 Neither study has been repeated. We also have no clinical trials or animal studies. At this point, we don’t have enough information to tell whether EPO might be useful in treating bacterial or fungal infections in humans. It may, nevertheless, have some anti-inflammatory properties that could be useful for bruises and swollen wounds.
Fatigue. One of the uses is treating fatigue—either chronic fatigue or fatigue after recovery from a viral infection. Though we have anecdotal evidence that EPO might be helpful for these conditions, the cross-cultural attestation and scientific evidence are not there.613
How do you use it?
Commercially prepared capsules: Buy capsules from a reliable source. Cheap evening-primrose preparations are sometimes mostly soy or safflower oil.614 Store it in a cool place.
Dosag e : How much do you use ?
The concentration of GLA in evening primrose oil varies, depending on how the oil is extracted.615 Existing studies often did not use standardized oils. Toxicity studies are lacking.
Consequently, we’re not sure what a good dose of EPO is. In arthritis studies, a typical dose is roughly 540 mg per day616 Some herbalists recommend as much as 1,000 mg three times a day.617 For short term use to treat dermatitis, daily doses as high as 4–8 g (4,000–8,000 mg) have been used.618 Your best bet is to buy from a reputable company and follow package instructions. Take it with food to help absorption and minimize the chance of gastrointestinal upset.619
What should you be aware of be fore using it?
Reported side effects include occasional headache, abdominal pain, nausea, and loose stools.620 Don’t take it if you are using phenothiazine drugs. It may pose an increased risk of temporal lobe epilepsy in schizophrenic patients taking epileptogenic drugs such as phenothiazines.621
If you have a seizure disorder, check with your doctor before using evening primrose. Several reports of seizures have been filed, some, but not all, of them involving individuals with a preexisting seizure disorder.622
Theoretically, evening primrose oil could increase the risk of bleeding. If you plan to have surgery, tell your surgeon you have been taking evening primrose oil and discontinue use at least two weeks or so before the surgery.623 Use caution when taking it with other herbs that also increase that risk. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
In animal studies, gamma-linolenic acid (an ingredient of EPO) is reported to decrease blood pressure. Human studies don’t show consistent changes in blood pressure, but those studies are still preliminary at this point.624
Don’t take EPO with drugs or herbs that have monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI) activity or that interact with MAOI drugs. Headache, tremors, mania, and insomnia may occur.625 (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
Don’t take it if you are pregnant.626
F
ENNELScientific name: Foeniculum vulgare
Also known as finocchio, carosella, xiao hui xiang Foeniculi aetheroleum is fennel oil
Fennel, Foeniculum vulgare
Co urte s y o f Fo o d i s ta
The plant is a perennial herb with a long straight stem and an umbrella of seeds. The seeds, which have an anise-like flavor are the part most used medicinally. The essential oil is distilled from the dried, ripe seeds by water steam distillation.
Fennel is indigenous to the Mediterranean region. From there, it spread to Europe, Asia, South and North America, where it now grows wild as an introduced species. Fennel has a long history of use both as a medicine and as a spice. Pliny used it extensively in his remedies. In the Middle Ages, it was used medicinally as a carminative as well as a means of warding off evil. Especially during the Midsummer festival, it was hung over the doors of houses to keep away evil influences. It also has a history of use as an insect repellant.
What is it g ood for?
Throat irritation and colds. We have traditional evidence from at least two continents for this use.
The Chinese call fennel xiao hui xiang and use it for upper respiratory tract mucous membrane
inflammation, cough, and bronchitis.627 Commission E recommends it for “catarrhs of the upper respiratory tract” and notes that it has mild expectorant properties.628 In the lab, it relaxes muscle chains in the trachea of pigs it was tested on.629 We have no clinical evidence for whether it does anything for human beings, however.
Flatulence. The Cherokee used fennel for flatulence.630 Commission E recommends it for this use, as did the 1918 U.S. Dispensatory and the Eclectic School.631 Scientific evidence, however, is lacking.
Antibacterial. In vitro, fennel kills several kinds of bacteria and fungi, including candida yeast, salmonella, and Shigella dysenteriae (a cause of bacterial dysentery),632 staphylococcus, and listeria.633 Implications of this property for human health remain untested.
Anti-inflammatory. Extract of fennel may have some untested anti-inflammatory and/or analgesic properties.634 Traditionally, fennel decoction or essential oil was used on bruises. Fennel does contain anethole, a compound known to have some anti-inflammatory properties. Beyond that, scientific evidence for this use is lacking.
How do you use it?
Decoction. To make a decoction of the seeds, use 1–2 teaspoons of the seeds per cup of water, bruising the seeds lightly before decocting them.635 Keep the water at a low simmer, not a boil, and keep the lid of the pot on to minimize the loss of essential oils. For flatulence or a cold, you can use this decoction as a tea. Drink before or after meals for flatulence and up to three times a day for a cold. You can also gargle with this tea (at room temperature) for sore throat.
Tincture. 1:5, 60% alcohol. Anethole, the anti-inflammatory agent in fennel, is more soluble in alcohol than it is in water. Anethole is also an irritant and slightly toxic. For these reasons, tinctures are more appropriate to topical uses.
Syrup. For coughs and throat irritation, fennel decoction can be combined with honey to make a syrup.
Whole or as a spice. If you tend to get gas from eating meat or cheese, you can add fennel to the meal or eat some afterward to help minimize gas.636
Dosag e : How much do you use ?
Essential oil. The commonly recommended dose is no more than 0.1–0.6 ml per day.637 That’s about 2–10 drops per day. The conservative recommendation is to completely avoid taking the essential oil internally. The essential oil can be dangerous (see the “What should you be aware of before using it” section). As little as ¼–1 teaspoon of the essential oil taken orally can have severe adverse effects.638 Besides, the internal uses are just as well served by decoctions and tinctures.
Whole seed. 5–7 g herb (the crushed seed) daily639
Tincture. no more than ½–1 teaspoon, three times (or fewer) per day.64 0 Watch to see how you
react to tinctures. But anethole in them can be irritating. Too much anethole can be toxic, so stay within the recommended doses.
Infusion. Lightly crush 1–2 teaspoonfuls of seeds. Pour a cup of boiling water over them and leave to infuse for 10 minutes. Drink one cup, up to three times per day.64 1
Don’t take fennel for more than a few weeks unless directed by a doctor.64 2
What should you be aware of be fore using it?
Fennel in food concentrations is on the FDA’s list of substances generally recognized as safe.
Whole seeds and tinctures, taken short term and in moderation, are generally safe. The problems come to light when it’s the essential oil and medicinal quantities that are being used.
The essential oil of fennel can be toxic. Reports of hallucinations and seizures have been reported with its use. Don’t use the essential oil without professional supervision.64 3
It’s possible to be allergic to fennel. If you are allergic to celery, be especially careful.64 4 The estragole in fennel causes cancer when given to rats in incredibly high doses.64 5 Don’t use the herb in medicinal quantities while pregnant.64 6
Children under the age of six shouldn’t be given medicinal quantities of this herb.64 7
Be especially careful of your sun exposure while taking this herb medicinally as it can cause photodermatitis.64 8
Don’t take it if you are using ciprofloxacin, because fennel may decrease the effect of this drug.64 9
In the wild, fennel looks a lot like hemlock. Don’t pick wild fennel for yourself unless you know what you’re doing.
F
ENUGREEKScientific name: Trigonella foenum-graecum
Also known as bird’s foot, Greek hay seed, hu lu ba, trigonella
Trigonella foenum-graecum
Fenugreek is a flowering annual plant with small, hard seeds. These seeds, along with the other above-ground parts, are the parts of the plant used medicinally. It’s a native of Asia and southeastern Europe and is not typically grown in North America except for a few isolated areas in California.
This herb has been used for centuries both as a spice and a medicinal herb. It was first cultivated in Assyria in the seventh century B.C.E.650 The first record of its medicinal use dates back to Hippocrates, the father of modern medicine. From there, use spread through the Mediterranean region to the Far East and South Asia. In China, fenugreek is called hu lu ba and is used for impotence and abdominal pain.651 It also has a place in Ayurvedic medicine. In Western countries, it has much less of a history. In the last thirty years, however, it has begun to gain attention as a help for metabolic syndrome (also called syndrome X). Metabolic syndrome is characterized by blood sugar problems (fasting hyperglycemia, type 2 diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance or insulin resistance), high blood pressure, central obesity (too much fat around the abdomen), increased LDL and decreased HDL cholesterol, elevated triglycerides, and elevated uric acid levels. Fenugreek shows promise for controlling just that complex of symptoms—blood sugar, cholesterol and triglycerides, and possibly weight control.
What is it g ood for?
Blood sugar control. This use is a modern one and has little traditional attestation. Animal studies abound. Fenugreek lowers the blood glucose level in rats with induced diabetes652 as well as in dogs and cows. We have fewer clinical studies regarding fenugreek and diabetes in people, but the few we have look promising. One study shows that using fenugreek seeds in conjunction with changes in diet improves blood sugar control and decreases insulin resistance in mild type 2 diabetic patients.653 Another study of patients with mild non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus showed that fenugreek lowered both fasting and postprandial blood sugar. However, people with more serious type 2 diabetes showed less benefit.654 A small-scale study of patients with type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes also showed a decrease in fasting blood sugar and improved glucose tolerance with fenugreek use.655
Cholesterol and triglyceride control . In rat experiments, daily fenugreek reduced the accumulation of triglycerides in the liver of obese rats.656 In one human study, fenugreek lowered blood lipids (both cholesterol and triglycerides) in patients with coronary artery disease but not in healthy subjects.657 Another human study found that fenugreek seed powder reduced LDL cholesterol.658 The quality of these studies, however, is not what one might hope.659
Sore throat and congestion . Fenugreek contains mucilage, up to 30%, in the seeds. It has been used traditionally for soothing a sore throat, and the presence of mucilage would seem to indicate that that use may have value. We have no studies, however, confirming its effectiveness.
Skin inflammation. Commission E recommends fenugreek as a poultice for local inflammation.660 Again fenugreek’s main value probably comes from the mucilage content, which acts to soothe irritation. Tradition says that it is an emollient, in other words, that it has skin-softening properties.
But tradition is all we have for this use.
Exercise recovery . One lone study of bicyclists suggests that fenugreek might help exercise recovery. Following an overnight fast and a ninety-minute ride, a muscle biopsy was taken. The cyclists were then given either dextrose alone or dextrose with an extract of fenugreek. After a period of time, a second biopsy was taken. Those who received the fenugreek had a 63% greater net rate of muscle glycogen resynthesis.661 In other words, their muscles refueled more quickly.
The study has been neither replicated nor challenged.
Weight control . Rats who were fed a high fat diet while simultaneously taking a fenugreek supplement showed decreased plasma triglyceride gain. The researchers postulate that this effect might prevent or slow weight gain caused by a high fat diet.662 We should note, however, that the rats were not actually weighed. Moreover, fat rats have much more in common with other rats than they do with fat human beings. Combined with the traditional use of fenugreek to stimulate the appetite, this evidence does not suggest that fenugreek is a useful tool for weight loss.
How do you use it?
Powdered. Commercially prepared capsules are available.
Poultice. A poultice made of the seeds can be used on boils or local skin inflammations. Powder or pulverize the seeds and mix with water to make a paste for the poultice.
Infusion. To make a tea, soak one tablespoon of seeds in a cup of cold water for twenty minutes.
Slowly bring the water to simmer. Turn off the heat and steep for 10 to 20 minutes. Strain and drink. To make a cold infusion, which helps preserve the mucilage, soak a tablespoon of the seeds in cold water for three hours. Strain and use.
Whole seeds. The cooked seeds can be eaten as well.663 Don’t boil the seeds because doing so destroys a number of components.664
Sprouted. Sprouted seeds were used in one cholesterol-control study.665 Sprouted seeds also have higher antioxidant properties than cooked seeds.666 To sprout the seeds, soak the seeds in cool water for twelve hours. Drain, rinse, and drain. Let the seeds sit out of direct sunlight to sprout.
Every twelve hours rinse and drain them again. Taste the sprouts at each rinse to see when you like the taste best. They will be ready in 3–6 days.
Gargle. A gargle is made by infusing 1 teaspoon of pulverized seeds in 8 ounces of water. It can be used up to three times per day.667
Tincture. Tinctures are not recommended if you want the mucilage of fenugreek to remain intact.
Salve. Use method two for making creams and salves (see Chapter 3). Use a low simmer and avoid boiling the fenugreek.
Dosag e : How much do you use ?
Internal: Probable effective dosage is .5–2 g, 3–4 times per day made into a tea.668 One study used 2.5 g twice a day to good effect (on both blood sugar and blood lipids).669 Don’t exceed 6 g per day. It can also be taken as a capsule: typical dose is one 626 mg capsule two to three times per day.670
External: 50 g powdered drug with one cup water.
What should you be aware of be fore using it?
Fenugreek has been used for centuries without significant adverse reactions. The FDA has placed it on its GRAS (generally recognized as safe) list for food use. Studies have also found it to be apparently safe for healthy adults in typical medicinal doses.671
It is possible to be allergic to fenugreek.672 Symptoms reported are runny nose, wheezing, and fainting when it is inhaled; and numbness, rapid facial swelling, and wheezing when it is applied topically.673 According to Commission E, repeated external applications can result in dermatitis or other undesirable skin reactions. You can become sensitized to fenugreek.
Fenugreek can affect blood sugar levels. If you are diabetic, discuss any herbal supplements you may wish to take (especially ones that affect blood sugar levels like fenugreek) with your doctor before taking them. Be cautious using fenugreek if you are hypoglycemic. Be cautious when using it in conjunction with herbs known or suspected to affect blood sugar levels. (See Chapter 5 for a list.)
Any herb containing mucilage can theoretically interfere with the absorption of other drugs.
Any herb containing mucilage can theoretically interfere with the absorption of other drugs.