Conflictos y tenencia de la tierra

According to Lindell (2013), the four main social entities involved in the recovery of a community after disaster events are government agencies, civil society organizations, local and national businesses, and household capacities. Businesses and household capacities are

responsible mainly their own recovery, while government and civil society organizations share collective responsibility for post-disaster operations and the recovery of the overall community (Lindell, 2013).

2.8.1 Household

A household is defined as a residential dwelling unit that has one or more persons living in it, collectively sharing meals, food supplies, and living accommodations. A single family, partners, or a group of people who have social or ethnic ties could be counted as a household (Haviland, 2003). Based on its considerable importance in the fields of economics and inheritance, the household is the basic unit of analysis in many social, microeconomic, and government models (O’Sullivan, MacGill, & Yu, 2003). At the household level, a disaster could

result in major illness, death, or substantial economic or social misfortune (John Hopkins and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2006).

2.8.2 Household Resources

Community resilience is dependent on individuals and families within the community (Van Breda, 2001; Alshehri Rezgui, & Li, 2013). When there is a great level of familial responsibility, the community is better placed to respond quickly and effectively to disasters (Kulig et al., 2012). The capacity of households for resilient post-disaster recovery is highly dependent on two types of resources: financial and non-financial. The first type is also known as intangible resources, which are those that the household holds only for their convertible financial value. Examples of financial resources include money held in savings and chequing accounts, certificates of deposits, savings bonds, stocks, retirement accounts, cash value life insurance policies, trusts, annuities, commodities futures, royalties, awards from lawsuits, and cash on hand (Bucks, Kennickell, Mach, & Moore, 2009). The second type is the non-financial assets, which include possessions that are evaluated on a basis other than financial worth and are

typically tangible. For example, residential and business property – both land and buildings – are forms of non-financial household assets, which also include possessions that have value, such as vehicles, electronic devices and equipment, art items, jewelry, furniture, appliances, and

souvenirs (Bucks et al., 2009). 2.8.3 Household Recovery

The main consideration associated with household recovery is the effectiveness and sustainability of the household capacity, which refers to the ability of the members of the household to return to their usual way of life after the recovery process. According to recent research studies, household capacity is affected by the number of people living in a particular house, their education and income levels, their access to community organizations, and their

connections to local religious and social associations. The household recovery process entails three main components that require specific resources: 1) housing recovery, (2) economic recovery, and (3) psychological recovery (Bolin & Trainer, 1978). In fact, households require investments of time, including time to secure food, clothing, shelter, and household appliances and equipment (Yelvington, 1997), as well as time to file proper insurance claims, apply for grants or loans, and search for jobs, all of which also require huge effort as well as being time consuming (Morrow, 1997). In addition, the stakeholders affected by the disaster must be self- confident, self-motivated, and patient in dealing with the bureaucratic processes involved in approaching a variety of entities to seek assistance during the post-disaster period (Morrow, 1997). Vulnerable communities can learn from local and international practices with respect to pre-disaster preparedness. In addition, communities will become better resilient when

combining these best practices with their past disaster recovery experiences. This combination can enable communities to develop some practical emergency tactics and procedures, as well as securing sustainable provisions for critical resources during the disaster times.

2.8.4 Sources of Household Recovery Assistance

According to Bolin and Trainer (1978), three types of assistance are correlated with three respective types of household recovery capacities: (1) institutional (i.e., governmental), (2) blood-relative relationships (i.e., extended family resources), and (3) independent (i.e., personal resources). Although few households actually rely on only one source, the ability of independent recovery is directly related to a household’s financial, physical, and human resources. For

example, local and central governments are obligated to provide the necessary recovery assistance based on its collective social responsibilities. Likewise, the religious beliefs and norms of the Saudi society strengthen the bonding between the community members and make everyone accountable for providing assistance, as long as he or she has the capacity to do so. In

addition, personal resources through business contacts or other social and political networking will allow some members of the communities to exploit their linkages outside their communities.

A great example of lateral initiatives between government institutions, businessmen, for- profit organizations, and individuals with religious dimension is donating tangible and non- tangible goods to the affected communities. Through utilizing the existing links, governments effectively can manage the distribution of these good in collaboration with NGOs and CBOs. The contribution of these organizations in providing recovery assistance is normally built on the bonding and bridging capacities between these organizations and members of the affected communities.

Another illustration of the role of religious beliefs of individuals, either within the

community outsiders, is paying their Zakat, which is equivalent to taxes, directly to the impacted people. The payments can be in the form of food, household appliances, or cash. The extent to which the members of a household can generate income from revenues arising from capital interest, dividends, rental of physical assets, or employment determines the human recovery resources that are available for exploitation and their preparedness to live more frugally. The successful recovery of a household is also substantially affected by how many undamaged resources and possessions remain (vehicles, crops and animals, buildings, equipment, land, clothes, furniture, etc.), as well as the ability of the household to acquire substitutes relatively inexpensively. Likewise, significant factors in accelerating household recovery are the availability of financial assistance and the ease and immediacy of gaining access to it, such as cashing in insurance policies, liquidating stocks and bonds, and withdrawing funds from bank accounts. Similarly, the flexibility of creditors with respect to deferring mortgage and loan payments can, to a considerable extent, hinder or facilitate the recovery of a household. A final consideration is the fact that, to be eligible for recovery assistance, an affected household must

meet specific qualification criteria, such as the length of their residency in the area concerned and evidence of their losses (Bolin & Trainer, 1978; Lindell, 2013).

2.8.5 Types of Household Recovery

Household recovery can be categorized according to four duration-related types that are typically needed following a disaster event (Quarantelli, 1982). Since the impacted population and families differ in number, characteristics, causes of movement, and duration of stay, their movement patterns through various housing types also vary (Cole, 2003). The first recovery type is called emergency shelter, which involves spaces in temporary accommodation for rapid and short-term protection and could be just mobile units or an open yard (Bolin & Stanford, 1991, 1998). The second type is temporary sheltering, which denotes longer-term facilities for sleeping, water supplies, and food preparation. This type of household recovery may be obtainable through relatives or friends, or could be provided in commercial lodgings such as motels or, to some extent, in church auditoriums and school gymnasiums. According to Islamic teachings, neighbours are regarded as relatives or even part of the extended family. Therefore, community members whom properties were undamaged will offer their homes as emergency or temporary shelters; either for relatives or non-relatives; as a practical example of illustrating bonding between the community members. The third type is called temporary housing, which allows disaster sufferers to re-establish their daily life activities in less than ideal settings, buildings, or locations. The fourth type is designated permanent housing and enables impacted people to resume their normal lives in safe, regular dwellings and locations. Based on the cultural traditions and norms, Saudi people are usually tend to reach out their relatives, friends and officials in close or even remote communities to seek recovery assistance. Linking and bridging capacities are well exploited in these instances as it is usually correlated with social and economic ties and demographic backgrounds.

Correlated demographic household characteristics reveal significant differences among households during the recovery stage (Peacock, Dash, & Zhang, 2006). The availability of nearby relatives and close friends and the degree of damage determine who can stay with people they already know, while age, homeownership and income are decisive factors in establishing who can host relatives or friends after a disaster (Morrow, 1997). Likewise, groups of impacted relatives will generally try to find a shared shelter, particularly if all of them are primary

sufferers (Yelvington, 1997; Lindell, 2013). Members of higher-income households but no nearby friends or relatives will often stay in motels, hotels, etc., whereas open spaces in public facilities may be the only sheltering option for lower-income households (Lindell, 2013). 2.8.6 Problems Associated with Household Recovery

Scholars have stated that during the restoration and rebuilding stage, households can confront a number of problems, which include breaches of the terms and conditions of contracts, poor-quality building work, and high repair costs (Bolin, 1991, pp.25-34). Lower-income households generally have a greater chance of being impacted simply because (1) their location is often more vulnerable to disasters, (2) the home may have been poorly maintained, (3) the building might have been constructed with lower-quality materials, and (4) standardized building codes might have been violated, all of which would mean that they would have lower levels of physical resilience (Bolin & Bolton, 1986; Lindell, 2013). Another factor could be the longer time that these households might take to restore their housing status because of insufficient resources for self-sustenance and recovery (Girard & Peacock, 1997).