La congestión en la segunda mitad del siglo XX

According to Skuse (2003:77) parental responses, language delay, and difficulties in accessing incidental learning are the major factors that can adversely affect the emotional development of deaf learners. The academic performance of these learners could be enhanced by attendance in regular schools, but emotional development may be negatively affected (Polat 2003:325-339).

Rieffe and Meerum Terwogt (2006:1261-1273) further emphasise that the emotional development of deaf learners is a severely understudied area. They also state that deaf learners often seem to overlook the effect that emotion displays in the interactions with their peers and caregivers.

Educators in regular schools have to address the unique needs of deaf learners by promoting the learners’ self-esteem and self-confidence. These main components of emotional development will be discussed in the next section.

2.6.4.3.1 Self-esteem and self-confidence

Self-esteem is a principal component of emotional development. The definition of self- esteem includes a person’s summary evaluation of his or her worthiness as a human being. In this delineation, self-esteem is global as it refers to the totalities of personal attributes rather than to a single dimension. Self-esteem is an important concept since it is shown to have a pervasive and powerful impact on human cognition, motivation, emotion, and behaviour (Jambor & Elliott 2005:63-81).

Regardless of whether deaf learners grow up in a hearing or deaf family, they all have to go through similar life experiences as they try to find their way in the majority society

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(Jambor & Elliott 2005: 63-81). Marschark (2007:209) further emphasise: “Because deaf learners typically receive (or understand) fewer explanations for the causes of other people’s social and emotional behaviours, they may have more difficulty controlling their own behaviour and learning from social experience. Communication barriers may also result in deaf learners having less knowledge about social rules, and their lack of social skills in turn may impede the development of independence and self-esteem”. These learners are likely to have faced frustration, embarrassment, misunderstanding, and the loneliness of being left out of oral conversations (Jambor & Elliott 2005:63-81). Verkuyten (2003:543-564) suggest that factors such as family support and school experience can significantly influence the self-esteem of any school learner.

Recent research shows that attending schools with mostly hearing learners, while having the opportunity to interact with other deaf learners, is beneficial since it gives these learners the chance to learn how to function in the hearing world (Kluwin 1999: 339-344). Marschark (2007:161) also emphasises the importance of providing opportunities for deaf learners to interact with other deaf learners and adults in order to help them appreciate that they have a rich and supportive community in addition to their hearing family. This suggests that school settings where deaf learners are among similar others but also interact with hearing educators and learners would be ideal for the developing self– esteem and self-confidence of deaf learners (Jambor & Elliott 2005:63-81).

2.6.4.3.2 Self-efficacy

According to Marschark et al. (2002:201), motivation, interest, and a positive attitude are helpful qualities in the learning process. Similarly, self-efficacy, the ability to engage in a task and successfully complete it, can be reinforcing in itself, while contributing to self- esteem and a sense of mastery.

Schirmer (2001:160) indicates that deaf learners could be characterised as immature and dependent on others, particularly by hearing learners and educators, however many deaf learners could also be characterised quite differently. The variance can be found in the

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different ways that these learners are encouraged to be self-motivated and to develop their leadership and independence capacities.

Schirmer (2001:161) mentions that deaf learners tend to attribute their academic success to external factors and therefore demonstrate less motivation to work on improving specific academic areas. Deaf learners were also found to be more impulsive than hearing learners regardless of the communication used by the learner, they become less impulsive with age, but so do hearing learners, and the differences between them seem to remain.

Marschark et al. (2002:201) further emphasise that deaf learners as well as hearing learners need to be motivated to perform successfully. Educators need to assist deaf learners to become aware of their strengths and find ways to take advantage of the context to maintain interest and enjoyment. They also need to motivate deaf learners to learn more in order to develop self-efficacy.

2.6.4.3.3 Love and belonging

Schools represent microcosms of society and provide opportunities for learners to develop and use skills that are necessary for a healthy lifestyle (Kent 2003:315-324). The sense of belonging to a school community is extremely important and has far-reaching implications for motivation and behaviour (Osterman 2000:323–367).

Deaf learners are at risk of alienation and a range of adverse outcomes including low academic achievement, delays in cognitive and social-cognitive processing, social maladaptation, and psychological distress or disorder. They may also begin to identify themselves as helpless individuals and avoid participating in school activities. The perception of being “left out” or undesirable is a characteristic of the social relationships of deaf learners (Kent 2003:315-324). Additionally, the prevailing negative social stigma of deafness may influence the individual personal perceptions of deafness common among deaf learners, further increasing the likelihood of isolation. Motivation, peer

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relationships, and identity are areas in which deaf learners are particularly vulnerable (Stinson & Whitmire 2000:58-72).

Luckner and Muir (2002:23-30) suggest that active participation in extracurricular activities helps these learners to develop their leadership and decision-making abilities, organisational skills, time-management skills, and interpersonal communication skills.

Moores (2001:204) concludes that the social-emotional adjustment of deaf learners is similar to that of hearing learners, with great individual variation. Most deaf learners cope with the reality of deafness as a lifelong condition and lead normal, productive lives. This fact supports the contention that deafness itself has no direct impact, either negative or positive, on the development of a mentally healthy individual. Consequently, an integrated approach to development that emphasises multiple skills including communication and language, socio-emotional, motor and adaptive or functional skills is considered to be the best practice in deaf learners’ education (Calderon & Greenberg 2003: 69).

The above discussion discloses that educators need to consider all aspects of human development in order to include deaf learners successfully in regular schools. It is important for educators to develop the appropriate attitude and skills for interacting with deaf learners in the regular classroom. They need to know which possible strategies to use and how to adapt the current curriculum in order to correctly identify and appropriately address the unique needs of these learners in regular schools.

2.7 CONCLUSION

This chapter begins with a discussion of the concept of “deafness”. A discussion of the aetiology of deafness as well as types and causes of hearing loss was also conducted in order to provide appropriate information about deaf learners. Auditory access and assistive technology, which include sensory devices such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, computers and related technologies were discussed in an attempt to address the successful inclusion of deaf learners in regular schools.

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Inclusive education requires changing the culture and organisation of the school so as to create sustainable systems and structures which develop and support flexible and adaptable approaches to learning and development of all learners including those with deafness. The theoretical framework of the study was explored, followed by an overview of some of the elements of educational change.

Curriculum adaptations and differentiations need to be individualised for deaf learners based on their unique needs and learning styles. In the next chapter the curriculum adaptations that are appropriate for deaf learners are outlined as well as how to make those adaptations to support their learning in regular classrooms.

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