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In Greek, where it has the implication of deserting a post, it refers generally to the abandonment of Christianity for unbelief (1 Tim. 4:1; 2 Tim. 2:18), though many believe that this refers to those who had never truly believed (1 Jn. 1:19; cf. Jn. 15:6). The writer of the letter to the Hebrews declares apostasy to be irrevocable (Heb. 6:4-6; 10:26), and Paul applies it eschatologically to the coming of a time of great rebellion against God (2 Thess. 2:3).
apostle. This term derives from Greek apostolos
G693, which means literally “one sent out” but usu- ally referred to naval expeditions and sometimes to messengers or ambassadors. In the NT it is a title applied in various ways. First of all, it once describes Christ himself (“Jesus, the apostle and high priest,” Heb. 3:1), pointing to Jesus’ role on earth as the ambassador of the Father. Second, the twelve dis- ciples whom Jesus chose to be with him and whom he commissioned and sent out to preach are also called “apostles” (Matt. 10:2; Mk. 3:14; 6:30; Lk. 6:13; 9:10; 11:49; 17:5; 22:14; 24:10). These men (without Judas but with Matthias, Acts 1:26) were primary witnesses of the resurrection of Jesus, and their task was to proclaim the gospel of God, estab- lish churches, and teach sound doctrine (Acts 4:33; 5:12; 5:29; 8:1, 14-18). They did this as they lived in spiritual union with the exalted Jesus through the Holy Spirit promised by Jesus in Jn. 14-16.
Since Paul met the resurrected and glorified Jesus and was given a commission by him to be the messenger to the Gentiles and the planter of churches in Gentile cities, he called himself an apos- tle (Rom. 1:1; Gal. 1:1), he defended his right to be known as an apostle (2 Cor. 11-12; Gal. 1), and he was described as an apostle by Luke (Acts 14:14). He believed that suffering was an inescapable part of his apostolic role (1 Cor. 4:9-13; 2 Cor. 4:7-12; 11:23-29), and he held that the church of God was built on Christ as the chief cornerstone and on the apostles as primary foundational stones (Eph. 2:20).
Further, and this information prevents neat and tidy definitions of an apostle, there are oth- ers who are called “apostles” in the NT. Included here are fellow-workers of Paul such as Barnabas (Acts 14:4, 14), Silas (1 Thess. 2:6), and prob- ably Andronicus and Junias (Rom. 16:7); it is also possible that Paul refers to James, brother
of the Lord Jesus, as an apostle in Gal. 1:19, but the meaning of this statement is debated. In any case, these individuals were not of the Twelve (Rev. 21:14) and not on the same footing as Paul, who was uniquely the apostle to the Gentiles.
apostolic age. The period in the history of the
Christian church when the apostles were alive, beginning with the Day of Pentecost and ending with the death of the apostle John near the end of the first century. See Acts of the Apostles.
Apostolic Council. See council.
Apostolic Fathers. A collection of early Chris-
tian writings (also referred to as Post-Apostolic or Sub-Apostolic) produced by authors thought to have been associated with the apostles. These documents are significant in that they help to close a gap between the NT and later writers. In addi- tion, the Apostolic Fathers provide information about the Christian church in the period immedi- ately after the apostles. The subjects to which one or another refer include the officers of the church, its form of worship, its sacramental observances, its treatment by the civil government, its system of discipline, its ethical teaching, and its ultimate source of authority. The information needs, of course, to be subjected to the usual critical tests before its value can be ascertained.
Usually included in the collection are the follow- ing writings. (1) The so-called epistles of Clement:
1 Clement, written in Rome c. A.D. 95; 2 Clement,
Codex Sinaiticus, a 4th-cent. MS of the NT that includes two books from the Apostolic Fathers.
© D r. Ja m es C . M ar tin . S t. C at he ri ne ’s M on as te ry . Ph ot og ra ph ed b y pe rm is si on .
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which is really a sermon by a different author, per- haps originating in Rome c. 140. (2) The epistles of Ignatius, written c. 115 to six churches and one indi- vidual: Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans, Polycarp. (3) Two docu-
ments concerned with Polycarp: his letter to the
Philippians, c. 115, and the Martyrdom of Polycarp,
c. 160. (4) The Didache, probably from Syria c. 90.
(5) The so-called Epistle of Barnabas, probably from
Egypt, c. 130. (6) The Shepherd of Hermas, from
Rome, c. 150. (7) The quotations from Papias of Hierapolis, c. 125. (8) The Epistle to Diognetus. apothecary. See occupations and professions. Appaim. ap´ay-im (Heb. ,appayim H691, possibly “little-nosed” or “big-nosed” or “angry”). Son of Nadab and descendant of Judah (1 Chr. 2:30-31).
apparel. See dress.
appeal. No provision was made in the OT for the
reconsideration from a lower to a higher court of a case already tried. Exodus 18:26 shows, however, that Moses provided for lower and higher courts: “The difficult cases they brought to Moses, but the simple ones they decided themselves.” In Deut. 17:8-13 provision was made for a lower court, under certain conditions, to seek instructions as to procedure from a higher court; but the decision itself belonged to the lower court.
In NT times the Roman government allowed each synagogue to exercise discipline over Jews, but only the Romans had the power of life and death. A Roman citizen could, however, claim exemption from trial by the Jews and appeal to be tried by a Roman court. Paul did this when he said, “I appeal to Caesar!” (Acts 25:11). In such cases the litigant either pronounced the Latin word appellō, as Paul
probably did, or submitted the appeal in writing. In either case the presiding magistrate was under obligation to transmit the file, together with a per- sonal report, to the competent higher magistrate.
Apphia. af´ee-uh (Gk. Apphia G722, prob. a native Phrygian name). A lady included in the salutation of Paul’s letter to Philemon, designated “our [lit., the] sister,” probably in the Christian
sense, indicating that she was a member of some prominence in the church (Phlm 2; KJV, following the TR, reads “our beloved Apphia”). Some have argued that she was Philemon’s wife; others have suggested that she was his (biological) sister.
Appian Way. ap´ee-uhn. The Via Appia was the
first of the paved roads that were the supreme engi- neering achievement of Rome. It was named after Appius Claudius Caecus, the censor, one of the first clear-cut personalities of Roman history. Begun in 312 B.C., the Appian Way ran from Rome to Capua, with a later extension to Brundisium. Parts of the road are still in use. Paul must have traveled by it from Puteoli to Rome (Acts 28:13-16).
Appius, Forum of. ap´ee-uhs, for´uhm. A forum
was the public square or marketplace of an ancient Roman city (cf. the Gk. agora), and the Forum of Appius was a traveler’s stop on the Appian Way, about 40 mi. (64 km.) S of Rome, where Paul was met by Roman Christians on his way to the capital under guard (Acts 28:15).
apple. See plants.
apple of the eye. An English idiom denoting
the pupil of the eye, which is precious and, there- fore, most carefully guarded. The phrase is used to translate a comparable Hebrew idiom occurring in passages that speak of God’s care of his people (Deut. 32:10; Ps. 17:8; Zech. 2:8) and of the pre- ciousness of the divine law (Prov. 7:2). The KJV uses the phrase also in Lam. 2:18, which refers to the literal eye.
apricot. See plants. apron. See dress.
Aqabah, Gulf of. ah´kuh-bah. Also Aqaba. The
NE arm of the Red Sea bounded on the W by the Sinai Peninsula and on the E by the Land of Midian (Arabian Desert). Solomon’s seaport city of Ezion Geber (see also Elath) situated on this gulf is said to be on the Red Sea (1 Ki. 9:26). During the wilderness wanderings, the Israelites were ordered to go from Kadesh Barnea into
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the wilderness by the way to the Red Sea, which most naturally refers to the Gulf of Aqabah (Num. 14:25; Deut. 1:40; 2:1). Similarly, after a second stay at Kadesh Barnea, Israel went by way of the Red Sea to go around Edom, which lay E of the Arabah (Num. 21:4; Jdg. 11:16).
aqueduct. A channel, covered or open, cut in
the rock; a waterway built of stone and sometimes faced with smooth cement; a waterway carried on stone arches across depressions. Aqueducts are used to convey water from reservoirs, pools, cis- terns, or springs to the places where it is to be used. Aqueducts may have existed even in pre-Israelite times, and continued to be developed until the excellent work of the Nabatean period (100 B.C. to A.D. 100). The Roman period shows many fine examples. Hezekiah excavated the Siloam tunnel (conduit) to bring water into Jerusalem by a way that could not be stopped up in time of siege (2 Ki. 20:20; 2 Chr. 32:30), and this served the purpose of an aqueduct.
Aquila. ak´wi-luh, uh-kwi´luh (Gk. Akylas,
“eagle”). A Jewish Christian whom Paul found at Corinth on his arrival from Athens (Acts 18:2, 18, 26; Rom. 16:3-4; 1 Cor. 16:19; 2 Tim. 4:19). A characteristic feature of Aquila and his wife Pris- cilla is that their names are always mentioned together. All that they accomplished was the result of their unity of spiritual nature and purpose in Christ. Having been among the Jews expelled from Rome, they opened a tentmaking business in Corinth. Because Paul followed the same trade, he was attracted to them. Being in full sympathy with the apostle, they hospitably received him into their home, where he remained for a year and a half. Their willingness to “risk their lives” for him earned the gratitude of all the churches. Apollos and many others were helped by their spiritual insight. Aquila and Priscilla had a “church that [met] at their house.” Priscilla is usually named first, possi- bly because she became a Christian first, or because she was more active in Christian endeavors, or per- haps for some other unknown reason.
Ar. ahr (Heb. <ār H6840, possibly “city”). A city in Moab, E of the Dead Sea, apparently near the
Arnon River (Num. 21:14-15, 28; Deut. 2:9, 18, 29; Isa. 15:1). The suggestion that Ar was the capi- tal of the Moabites is worth noting. Its location is uncertain, and some think the name could refer to a larger region within Moab.
Ara. air´uh (Heb. ,ărā , H736, possibly “lion”). Son of Jether (1 Chr. 7:38), listed among the “heads of families, choice men, brave warriors and outstand- ing leaders” of the tribe of Asher (v. 40).
Arab (people group). a´ruhb, air´uhb. See
Arabia.
Arab (place). a´ruhb, air´uhb (Heb. ,ărāb H742, possibly “ambush”). A city in the hill country of the tribe of Judah ( Josh. 15:52); the site is uncertain, but it is usually identified with modern Khirbet er- Rabiyeh, 8 mi. (13 km.) SW of Hebron.
Arabah. air´uh-buh (Heb. <ărābāh H6858, “wil- derness”). When this Hebrew word is used with the definite article, as it most frequently is, it refers to the great rift valley running S from the Sea of Galilee, including the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea, and extending all the way to the Gulf of Aqabah. As such, it forms a major geographi- cal area of the land of the Bible and certainly the most important feature of the relief of the land. In the KJV, the word is rendered as the proper name “Arabah” only in Josh. 18:18, elsewhere as “des- ert,” “plain,” “wilderness.” Modern translations more consistently take it as a proper name. With- out the Hebrew definite article, the term can be used to refer to desert steppe land in general (e.g., Job 24:5; 39:6; Isa. 33:9; Jer. 17:6). In the plural it could be applied to certain desert sections within the Arabah as a whole (e.g., Num. 26:3; Josh. 5:10; 2 Sam. 15:28; et al.). The modern terms used are
Ghor (“depression”) for the Jordan Valley portion of
the Arabah and <Arabah or Wadi el-<Arabah for that
portion S of the Dead Sea.
The Dead Sea is sometimes also referred to as the “Sea of the Arabah” (Deut. 4:49; Josh. 3:16; 12:3; 2 Ki. 14:25). The name “Wadi Arabah” (Amos 6:14 NRSV; “valley of the Arabah” in the NIV) may refer to the Zered River, but some scholars locate it NE of the Dead Sea.
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