CONSIDERACIONES FINALES

In this chapter there is a reflection on the literature presented previously about creativity, ADHD, and concept mapping. The assertion that research on creativity among children with ADHD is slight and is a justifiable area for the present study will also be highlighted.

In order to locate the greatest number of related studies to the present study, the researcher conducted a computer search using the following computerized data bases:

Australian Education Index (AEI)

http://www.dialogatsite.com/webcd/AtSiteExt.dll?Submit

British Education Index (BEI)

http://www.dialogatsite.com/webcd/AtSiteExt.dll?Submit

Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) http://www.eric.ed.gov/

ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (PQDT)

http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?RQT=306&TS=1203095169&clientId=2 9134

By the use of the key word/s "concept mapping", "creativity", and "ADHD", the search yielded these results which summarized in a tabular form as follows:

Table 6.1 Literature's Data Sources

Key word/s AEI BEI ERIC PQDT

Creativity 979 691 10348 6687

ADHD 162 44 1561 1817

Concept mapping 232 218 1165 356

Creativity, ADHD 0 0 13 0

Creativity, Concept mapping 0 0 16 13

ADHD, Concept mapping 0 0 0 1

Creativity, ADHD, Concept

From data presented in Table 6.1 it might be reasonable to say that these concepts (creativity, concept mapping, and ADHD) were researched intensively, yet, the area of creativity among individuals with ADHD is greatly lacking in research. Additionally, concept mapping technique is rarely used as a research topic in both creativity and ADHD. The aim of the present study is to investigate the effects of creativity training (the CoRT thinking lessons) upon the creative ability of students classified with ADHD as measured by the ability to develop complex concept maps. These three concepts (creativity, concept mapping and ADHD) which this study considers are very complex and never explored together before. To the researcher's knowledge, there is no academic work done to investigate the effects of using creativity training on creative ability of children with ADHD through concept mapping technique. Therefore, in the following discussion the researcher will put these concepts together when it is possible and appropriate.

Creativity, as mentioned in chapter two, has been tackled and recognized differently by a large number of theorists through a diversity of research methodologies. Despite differences they all conclude, unsurprisingly, that creativity is an important quality for everyone to have. They also considered creativity training as a good activity, and that children might benefit from developing their creative thinking skills.

In regard to creativity among children with ADHD, some researchers and professionals in the field of ADHD reported that children with ADHD might have creative personalities. One obvious explanation of this is that ADHD and creative behaviours may overlap. In other words, there are some characteristics (such as risk-taking, energetic, attracted to novelty and complexity, argumentative, resistant to authority, demanding, uncooperative, may not do

well in groups, spends time day dreaming, forgetful, careless, sloppy with details, egocentric, moody, sensitive, temperamental, impatient, impulsive, and overactive physically or mentally) which are common characteristics of creative children and also a hallmark of children with ADHD. The current researcher (as mentioned in chapter four) believes that children with ADHD and creative children may behave similarly but the cause, character, and the reason behind the behaviour might be different. The researcher also believes that not all of the above characteristics will apply to all children with ADHD nor to all creative children. Thus, the existence of the above characteristics does not necessarily guarantee the existence of ADHD or creativity.

Since children with ADHD have common characteristics with creative children and creativity training programmes are designed to help children to understand their personality, then creativity training might help children with ADHD to understand their negative qualities (e.g. daydreaming, sensitivity, and impulsivity) as part of their character and individuality. This might help children with ADHD to reform and modify these negative qualities in a more acceptable form to their environment. Creativity training, in that case, might help children with ADHD to achieve more successful and happier relationships with their parents, teachers, and friends.

The above characteristics might create more daily problems for children with ADHD. Since one important objective of any creativity training programme is to teach children the skill of generating more creative solutions to solve everyday problems, one may suggest that creativity training might help children with ADHD in solving daily problems, and that they should have the chance to be educated and prepared to think and behave creatively.

Concept mapping has been related to creativity (in the sense that concept mapping is an activity which could foster, reflect, and measure creativity). Creative behaviour might result from generalizing schemas from the individual's past experiences which provide a basis for perceiving problems, retrieving needed information, restructuring the Gestalt, and adding to the general schema. In a similar way, mapping a concept map - which focuses on the individual's discovery of meaning - requires the association of newly learned concepts with what the learner already knows. Thus, in creating a concept map, an individual structures concepts using his/her perspective rather than someone else’s. He/she draws his/her map upon his/her relevant prior knowledge. The process of creating a concept map empowers the learner to take charge of his/her own learning. The individual's personal awareness of how much control he/she has over his/her own learning may increase the individual's awareness of internal control and lead to deeper levels of cognitive engagement which can lead to creative behaviour.

Since concept mapping has been seen as an externalized representation of the learner’s knowledge (see Anderson-Inman et al., 1998; Anderson-Inman and Zeitz, 1993, 1994; Dabbagh, 2001; Plotnic, 1997). It can be considered as a valuable assessment and diagnostic tool to assess changes in metacognition. Thus, concept mapping can be also considered as a suitable instrument for measuring creativity.

Gender differences in the above three concepts (creativity, ADHD, and concept mapping) will be presented in the next paragraphs. The current researcher has chosen to discuss the gender differences to present a general picture of these concepts. The current researcher is not trying to imply that females or children with ADHD are disadvantaged. In fact, she believes that

every one (female/male, with/without ADHD) could enhance his/her creative abilities and should have the chance to do so.

In regard to the gender differences in creativity, many studies have arrived at very different results. Nevertheless, most creativity researchers have found no differences between the scores of males and females on creativity tests. In 1965 Torrance reported that, whether on verbal or non-verbal creativity measures, he did not find significant gender differences. Michel and Dudek (1991) also used TTCT and arrived at very similar results to that of Torrance. Results of a more recent study confirmed that no significant relationship was found between gender and creativity (Matud et al., 2007). Baer (2007) reviewed more than 80 studies and found that more than half of these studies reported no difference, two-thirds of the others reported that females scored higher than males on creativity tests and one-third reported that males scored higher than females on creativity tests. More importantly, in respect to the benefit from creativity training - which the present study addresses - meta- analysis studies (e.g. Ma, 2006; Mansfield et al., 1978; Scott et al., 2004a, 2004b; Torrance, 1972) reported that creative abilities of both gender can be enhanced by training.

In 1902, Still observed that the majority of children with ADHD were boys. He also believed that this did not happen by chance. Today, most ADHD researchers have found (with ratios of 3:1- 6:1) ADHD is more frequently diagnosed in boys which led some to believe that ADHD is found primarily in boys (Barkley, 2006b; Batsche and Knoff, 1994; Newcorn et al., 2001; Quinn and Nadeau, 2000). Thus, it is more likely that girls will not both be identified and/or treated. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP, 2004) highlighted this issue as follows:

The fact that many more boys than girls are diagnosed with ADHD - at a ratio of approximately 3:1 - has led to the mistaken belief among many parents and teachers that ADHD is a “boys” disorder that rarely occurs in girls. This belief, along with the fact that girls are more likely to have inattentive-type ADHD that tends to be overlooked entirely or does not attract attention until the child is older, means that girls are less likely to be referred for evaluation and to receive the treatment they need. Even when diagnosis and treatment have been obtained, girls with ADHD are further disadvantaged by the fact that most ADHD research to date has focused on boys, and little is known about potential differences between the genders in the development to the condition over time or response to medication and other forms of treatment. (p.13)

Although the main symptoms of ADHD in females are similar to those in males, Nolan and colleagues (2001) found that comparing to males with ADHD, females with ADHD tended to be diagnosed with inattentive subtype. Additionally, Newcorn and colleagues (2001) reported that females with ADHD, in general, were less impaired than males with ADHD.

Given that most of the research on ADHD has focused on boys - as stated previously - Quinn and Nadeau affirmed that further research is needed regarding gender differences and ADHD. In their words:

Although we have come along way in the last decade toward a better understanding of girls and women with ADHD, there remains much to do and many avenues yet unexplored. Two issues requiring immediate attention are the establishment of diagnostic criteria for girls and women with ADD without hyperactivity, leading to better incidence figures. In order to accurately assess incidence, rating scales will need to examine gender selection bias. Scales that focus on hyperactivity/impulsivity or externalizing behaviors will miss the majority of girls but especially those with ADD without hyperactivity. The development of self-rating scales for girls is critical to more accurate diagnosis and incidence reporting.... Girls with ADHD also have low self-esteem and poor peer relations. These conditions combined with impulsivity place girls at risk for unprotected sex and teen pregnancy. Does this also lead to an increase in sexually transmitted diseases in girls and women with ADHD? Are they at grater risk for suicide and suicide attempts? Are girls and women with ADD or ADHD presenting with eating disorders? How do poor social skills impact on girls and women with ADHD? Do women with ADHD have a higher incidence of divorce? Many questions seeking answers. Many women and girls seeking our knowledge,

understanding, and help. What can we do to assist them in their quest for a better life? (2000, p. 224).

In their Meta-analysis study Horton et al. (1993, p. 107) failed to answer "whether concept mapping as an instructional tool had different effects for male and female students" because most studies did not address gender. Horton and colleagues find only one study by Jegedel et al. (1989) in which they affirmed that, among 51 Nigerian students, concept mapping reduce students' anxiety towards the learning of biology, but males demonstrated better achievement than females. However, Okebukola (1992) reported mixed results for gender in the use of concept mapping as a problem solving skill in science, but the females who get training on using concept mapping outperformed those in the control group.

On the basis of the above discussion on gender differences, it is evident from the literature that the benefits from concept mapping strategy or creativity training are not related to the child's gender. Thus, the current researcher suggests that every child should have the opportunity to develop and nourish his/her learning skills and creative thinking abilities.

To conclude, the literature is consistent about the importance of creativity to every individual and every community. The literature also affirmed that all people are creative to some extent and that creativity can be measured as well as taught. Furthermore, the literature highlights the importance of creativity training for everyone, and that creativity training may enhance creative thinking and behaviour.

Lastly, from reviewing the literature, it is sufficient to say that creativity among children with ADHD is an area sorely lacking in research. Therefore, filling a small space in the large gap that exists in knowledge of creativity

among children with ADHD is a major aim of the present study. More importantly, the researcher hopes that information gained from this study will benefit children with ADHD through the understanding of their creative thinking. Thus, the purpose of the present study is to explore whether creativity training (the CoRT thinking lessons) can increase the complexity in concept mapping produced by children with ADHD who are fourth and fifth graders. The following chapter introduces the procedures followed in conducting this study.