As mentioned in Chapter One, in Thailand and in other developing economies, there is recognition that educational change is being initiated by increasing global competition. A review of the relevant literature was undertaken to assess how curricula and teaching are altering in higher education institutions all over the world, in response to these demands (Becher et al., 1978; Berryman, 2000; Ensor, 2004; Litt & Parkinson, 1979; Prawat, 1992; UNESCO Asia and the Pacific Regional Bureau for Education Bangkok, 2002).
According to the UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, Bangkok (2002), the new dynamic approach to curriculum development 'involves a complex process influenced by decision-making practices that are influenced by various aspects of the socio-cultural, political and economical milieu' (p. 39). The essential features of curricula, therefore, may require more careful linking of practical enterprise and the use of a number of curriculum approaches which have emerged over the decades (Marsh & Willis, 2003). Sources of the literature relevant to curriculum issues related to 'real world' business contexts are summarised in Table 2-3.
Table 2-3: Overview of some of the literature relevant to curriculum issues related to learning in real world business contexts
Author (Year) Title Major Focus
Brady (1995) Curriculum Development Curriculum development involves the
relationship between the essential curriculum elements in the process of curriculum development
Brady & Kennedy (2003)
Curriculum Construction Business curriculum relevant to
outcomes (employment opportunities) Marsh & Willis
(2003)
Curriculum: Alternative Approaches, Ongoing Issues
Curriculum development,
implementation, evaluation and the interface of politics and curriculum decision-making
Ornstein & Hunkins (1998)
Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and Issues
Curriculum text incorporates theory to identify worthwhile practices in the real world
Curriculum Development or Design Models
Since the early 1960s, it became apparent to researchers evaluating educational curricula that curriculum design affected the effectiveness of education programs (Madaus, Stufflebeam & Scriven, 1983). The range of models available and the varied types of curriculum possible, present challenges to the vast array of participants involved in education (Brady, 1995; Marsh & Willis, 2003; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
Curriculum development models can be categorized in terms of their flexibility. This flexibility is depicted as a continuum between two extremes, with the 'rational or objective' models being the most rigid, and the 'dynamic interactive' models being the most flexible (Marsh & Willis, 2003; Print, 1993; Tyler, 1983). Walker's model, for example, which is one of the 'dynamic interactive' models, can be applied, so that students become engaged in 'real-life' situations. The application of models such as Walker's means that the curriculum is continuously changed and developed further as a consequence of encounters with the 'real-world'. Marsh and Willis (2003) stated that Walker's model is 'dynamic-interactive' because it uses methodologies from the social sciences to produce an accurate description of what actually happens (researcher emphasis), when people endeavour to develop a curriculum.
Curriculum models can provide realistic and detailed perspectives on some particulars of the curriculum in action (Marsh & Willis, 2003). These models are influenced by a view of knowledge and reality as a dynamic, emerging phenomenon, where self and others interact in real world contexts. Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), pointed out the applicability of curriculum development models to the real world of work as follows:
By practice, we mean the procedures, methods, and skills that apply to the working world, where a person is on the job or actively involved in his or her profession. These procedures and methods are teachable and can be applied in different situations (p. 21).
To reflect this reality, curriculum models require acknowledgement of the connection between theory and practice. This suggests that when students applied their theoretical knowledge in practice, their results should be assessable as successful or effective, or otherwise.
Curriculum Evaluation
Updating curricula must necessarily be preceded by an evaluation of how effectively they facilitate their design objectives. The main purpose of curriculum evaluation is to judge programmes or projects in order to facilitate or improve them. Curriculum evaluation involves the whole process of planning and implementing a curriculum, which may lead directly to a further cycle of beneficial change (Marsh & Willis, 2003). According to Marsh and Willis (2003), the purposes of curriculum evaluation include the following:
• to improve teaching and to better meet the needs of students, in line with the concept of 'student-centred' learning;
• to examine any effects of introducing a new curriculum; and • to justify university practices to the community.
There can be no improvement in curriculum without evaluation. However, curriculum evaluation assesses interaction between teachers and students within the curriculum, in particular settings (Fullan, 2001). As described by Marsh and Willis (2003), curriculum evaluation is:
is not confined to investigating only what students have learned or to analysing lesson plans. Rather, curriculum evaluation can involve examination of the goals, rationale, and structure of both the planned curriculum and the enacted curriculum; a study of the context in
which the enacted curriculum occurs (including inputs from parents and the community); and an analysis of the interests, motivations, reactions, and achievements of the students experiencing the curriculum (p. 277).
There are many curriculum evaluation models from which to choose. For example, Worthen and Sanders (1973) described a number of such models, ranging from Stake's 'Countenance Model' to Stufflebeam's 'CIPP Model'. Some of these models involve 'experimentation' and 'testing' while others seek to 'illuminate' key aspects of the course under consideration and the context in which it is implemented, focusing on description and interpretation rather than measurement and prediction (Brady, 1995). Each educational situation and the context in which it exists is unique; therefore different types of evaluation will be suitable for different curricula (Brady, 1995; Marsh, 1986; Marsh & Willis, 2003; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
One approach to curriculum evaluation that is often appropriate for case study is the 'Illuminative Model', developed by Parlett and Hamilton (1977). The 'Illuminative Model' is a model which claims to represent a paradigm shift involving new suppositions, concepts and methodologies, and according to Marsh and Willis (2003), this model may be appropriate for courses like the BSC, because such courses are never implemented exactly as planned, due to the contingencies in each learning milieu.
Business Curricula
According to Brady and Kennedy (2003), a business school's core curriculum should contain a series of courses designed to provide students with a solid foundation in the academic disciplines and applied function areas necessary to compete in a global economy. They stated further, 'The curriculum is important and [it] must be structured in a particular way to deliver outcomes that are relevant to employment opportunities and the economic needs of society' (p. 5). Moreover, the curriculum content in business professional programs should contribute to the students' capacity to function well in the world of business. As Brady and Kennedy (2003) stated, 'Business people see the curriculum as the means by which students gain the requisite knowledge and skills to make them productive workers' (p. 4). This approach to learning is enhanced by co-curricular opportunities which bring students into contact with 'real-world' issues.
Business Schools typically teach communication skills, creativity, entrepreneurship, business ethics, information technology, interpersonal skills and problem-solving (Schmidt, 1991). These teaching areas also highlight critical thinking, technological literacy and exposure to 'real-world' situations. Therefore, the business curriculum should be designed to emphasise the importance of planning to confront changes and encourage progress towards goals (Brady & Kennedy, 1998). The curriculum seeks to improve the quality of students in a 'real' business world, in response to global competition and the liberalisation of trade (Schmidt, 1991; Shinawatra, 2003; Stinson & Milter, 1996).
Miralao (2000) and the UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, Bangkok (2002) provided valuable guidelines for the improvement of business curricula. These guide lines are based on changes which have occurred in the world of work where, for example, the demands of a global economy have exerted pressure on labour markets, requiring new types of skills and competencies to be developed by graduates. The UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education, Bangkok (2002), summed up the situation well with the following statement:
The rapidly changing social, political and economical environment calls for a constant updating of teaching and learning areas so as to meet the demands of the global society and labour markets (p. 46).
Authentic Assessment
Authentic assessment is particularly suited to courses such as the BSC, where learning in real-life contexts needs to be assessed. Authentic assessment is a form of assessment in which students are asked to demonstrate their mastery of the subject, which includes the achievement of essential knowledge and skills. Some literature relevant to authentic assessment related to real world contexts is summarised in Table 2-4.
Table 2-4: Overview of some of the literature relevant to authentic assessment in higher education
Author (Year) Title Major Focus
Fischer & King (1995)
Authentic Assessment: A Guide to Implementation
Assists students to demonstrate knowledge and solve problems in real- life
Marsh & Willis (2003)
Curriculum: Alternative Approaches, Ongoing Issues
The arguments (pro and con) for traditional and authentic assessment Rudner & Boston
(1994)
Performance Assessment Authentic assessments address the
skills and abilities needed to perform actual tasks
A number of researchers have given definitions of authentic assessment, for example, Fischer and King (1995), described authentic assessment as:
when students do something other than the traditional norm- referenced or criterion-referenced paper-and-pencil measurement, requiring students not only to respond but also to demonstrate knowledge and skills (p. 2).
However, Rudner and Boston (1994), suggested that such authentic assessment actually involves learning and stated that 'The process of assessment is itself a constructivist learning experience, requiring students to apply thinking skills, to understand the nature of high quality performance, and to provide feedback to themselves and others' (p. 7).
Authentic assessment incorporates a wide variety of methods to correspond as closely as possible to 'real world' student experiences (Custer, 1994; Fischer & King, 1995; Herman, Aschbacher & Winters, 1992; Marsh & Willis, 2003; Mueller, 2003; Rudner, 1994; Wiggins, 1998). Torrance (1993) stated that authentic assessment involves higher order skills and competencies, such as problem-solving, investigation and analysis. Boud (1995), argued that the importance of this assessment perspective is that it relates teaching directly to assessment which, in turn, impacts on student learning.
In simulated learning, authentic assessment is emphasised, to discover whether or not students can solve problems successfully, or describe the process of solving problems. The performance testing of problem-solving is valid, reliable and objective
when using authentic (realistic) tasks, whereas traditional tests may lack these features (Mayer, 1996b).
Authentic assessment is more complete and representative than traditional assessment, using different techniques from the traditional standardised test (see Appendix IV, Figure D: The Attributes of Traditional and Authentic Assessment). In the BSC context, assessment should be related to how students manage a business in a real world context. Greater stress on understanding, hands-on learning experiences, and collaborative group work will help students use the tools, techniques, and ideas to develop their understanding of the world and enable them to develop solutions to real-life problems (Custer, 1994; Fischer & King 1995; Kerka, 1995).
However, a number of scholars (Linn, Baker & Dunbar, 1991; Marsh & Willis 2003; Torrance, 1993), referred to the disadvantages of authentic assessment; in particular, that it can be very time-consuming when compared with other assessment methods. They also stated that justifying the use of authentic assessment tasks to others may be difficult, as they may question the validity of the continuous assessment method, because traditional assessment methods assess only the finished products or the outcomes (Huba & Freed, 2000; Linn et al., 1991; Marsh & Willis, 2003: Torrance, 1993).
On the other hand, Kauchak and Eggen (1998) reported some difficulty with traditional assessment including focus on knowledge and offering little insight into learners' thought processes and problem-solving skills. They stated that traditional pen- and paper-based assessment does not assess students' ability to apply their understanding to 'real' world problems (p. 379). As Pryor and Torrance (cited in Marsh & Willis, 2003) stated, 'In authentic assessment, therefore, the tasks students undertake are more practical, realistic, and challenging than traditional paper-pencil tests' (p. 287).
Some advantages of authentic assessment include that it does not encourage rote learning and passive test taking. Instead, it focuses on students' analytical skills, ability to integrate what they learn, creativity, ability to work collaboratively, and written and oral expression skills (Huba & Freed, 2000; Marsh & Willis, 2003). Thus, the literature suggests that authentic assessment is aligned closely with
curricula such as the BSC, as they assess thinking and doing, theory and practice, in real-world contexts (Kerka, 1995). Overall, assessing for problem-solving is an appropriate assessment strategy for a practice-based course such as the BSC.