industrial, commercial and other
industrial, commercial and other non-agricultural populationnon-agricultural population..
**
Economic shift from land to industry resulted in broader distribution of wealth,Economic shift from land to industry resulted in broader distribution of wealth, especially among the bourgeoisie, the new middle class.especially among the bourgeoisie, the new middle class.
**
Political changes reflected shift of economic power. Hence, new laws and statePolitical changes reflected shift of economic power. Hence, new laws and state policies reflected the economic interests of new power holders.policies reflected the economic interests of new power holders.
**
SweepSweeping social changes -- ing social changes -- growtgrowth h of of citicities, developmees, development nt of working classof working class movements, and emergence of newmovements, and emergence of new patterns of authority.patterns of authority.
**
CulCulturtural al tratransfnsformormatiations ons of of brobroadeader r ordorder. er. The The worworker ker acqacquiuired red new new andanddistinctive skills and relation to task shifted. Instead of craftsman with hands distinctive skills and relation to task shifted. Instead of craftsman with hands tools, he became a
tools, he became a machine operator, subject to factory discipline.machine operator, subject to factory discipline.
**
Psychological change -- man’s confidence in his ability to use resources and toPsychological change -- man’s confidence in his ability to use resources and to master nature was heightened.master nature was heightened.
4.
4. Great Britain and France:Great Britain and France:
A Case Study on Industrial Development A Case Study on Industrial Development 4.1. industrialization were present there. However, its small size prevented it from becoming industrialization were present there. However, its small size prevented it from becoming the leading industrial power in
the leading industrial power in Europe.Europe.
4.2.
4.2. Capital investment in mechanical devices provided the basis for technologicalCapital investment in mechanical devices provided the basis for technological cha
changenge. . But for But for thithis s purpurpospose e the the capcapitaital l musmust t be be mobmobileile; ; i.ei.e., ., avaavailailable ble for for ind
indusustritrial al invinvestestmenment. t. WhiWhile le FranFrance ce had had mucmuch h capcapitaital, l, it it was was divdiverterted ed toto unproductive uses -- forced loans to the state, upkeep of a wasteful royal court unproductive uses -- forced loans to the state, upkeep of a wasteful royal court and bureaucracy, and war expenditures. And it was dissipated by government and bureaucracy, and war expenditures. And it was dissipated by government bankruptcy.
bankruptcy.
Great Britain’s capital was rapidly increasing through agricultural improvements and Great Britain’s capital was rapidly increasing through agricultural improvements and commercial expansion. And the British monetary system was far sounder than that of commercial expansion. And the British monetary system was far sounder than that of France. Lowering by the British of interest rate in the first half of the 18
France. Lowering by the British of interest rate in the first half of the 18thth century madecentury made cheap capital available for
cheap capital available for industrial investment.industrial investment.
4.3.
4.3. Mobility and adaptability in the labour supply are also essential for industrialMobility and adaptability in the labour supply are also essential for industrial development. In case respects, Britain surpassed France. Serfdom and the guild development. In case respects, Britain surpassed France. Serfdom and the guild system had almost disappeared in Britain by the beginning of the 18
system had almost disappeared in Britain by the beginning of the 18thth century.century.
They were not completely destroyed in France
They were not completely destroyed in France until the French Revolution.until the French Revolution.
4.4.
4.4. Markets are also necessary for industrial growth. A large demand stimulatesMarkets are also necessary for industrial growth. A large demand stimulates technological improvement. Mass production must have large market to
technological improvement. Mass production must have large market to consumeconsume its finished goods.
its finished goods.
Given the mercantilism practices of the 18
Given the mercantilism practices of the 18thth century, which entailed strict limitations oncentury, which entailed strict limitations on imports, both Great Britain and France had their home markets at their command. The imports, both Great Britain and France had their home markets at their command. The population of France was larger than that of
population of France was larger than that of Britain but France lost most of its colonies inBritain but France lost most of its colonies in the 18
the 18ththcentury.century.
Britain meanwhile monopolized the trade with its growing colonies. Though it lost its 13 Britain meanwhile monopolized the trade with its growing colonies. Though it lost its 13 American colonies, Britain was able during the 1790s to extend its empire and its American colonies, Britain was able during the 1790s to extend its empire and its carrying trade. Thus British markets were expanding at a greater rate after 1763 than carrying trade. Thus British markets were expanding at a greater rate after 1763 than were the French.
were the French.
Britain’s advantage was further increased because the French specialized in expensive, Britain’s advantage was further increased because the French specialized in expensive, handmade articles while the British made coarse goods capable of being produces by handmade articles while the British made coarse goods capable of being produces by machines and sold to a mass market at low process.
machines and sold to a mass market at low process.
4.5.
4.5. The British outstripped the French with a great merchant marine for overseasThe British outstripped the French with a great merchant marine for overseas trade and an extensive canal and road system for inland transportation. James trade and an extensive canal and road system for inland transportation. James Brindley’s pioneer efforts ushered in a canal-building era that gave England a Brindley’s pioneer efforts ushered in a canal-building era that gave England a network twice as large as that of France by 1800. Similarly, road building in network twice as large as that of France by 1800. Similarly, road building in 18thc
18thcentuentury ry EnglEngland flourishand flourished with ed with the new the new methomethods of ds of the great the great ScottScottishish roadbuilders Thomas Telford and John McAdam.
roadbuilders Thomas Telford and John McAdam.
4.6.
4.6. Business opportunities were slightly greater for the British entrepreneur than for Business opportunities were slightly greater for the British entrepreneur than for his French counterpart, for the English political system and scale of social values his French counterpart, for the English political system and scale of social values were more propitious for industrial and commercial activities. While the
were more propitious for industrial and commercial activities. While the BourbonBourbon monarchy constantly frustrated the French trading classes, the British parliament, monarchy constantly frustrated the French trading classes, the British parliament, cont
controllerolled d by by commercommercial magnates and cial magnates and landelanded d aristaristocratocrats s since the since the EngEnglishlish revolution of 1688, was consistently devoted to the expansion of commerce and revolution of 1688, was consistently devoted to the expansion of commerce and the prosperity of agriculture.
the prosperity of agriculture.
4.7.
4.7. Both France and Britain possessed raw materials and other natural resources, butBoth France and Britain possessed raw materials and other natural resources, but th
the e BrBrititisish h reresosoururces ces wewere re momore re rereadadilily y avavaiailalablble e ththan an ththe e FrFrenenchch. . MoMostst important was coal. The production of every ton of iron required from seven to important was coal. The production of every ton of iron required from seven to ten tons of coal. It was Britain’s good fortune to have this coal located near ten tons of coal. It was Britain’s good fortune to have this coal located near seaports, making the shipment of ore to coal an inexpensive process. Since the seaports, making the shipment of ore to coal an inexpensive process. Since the cru
cruciacial l earearly ly ststage age of of the the IndIndustustriarial l RevRevoluolutiotion n coicoincincided ded witwith h the the FreFrenchnch Revolution, Britain’s naval supremacy allowed it to maintain a free flow of raw Revolution, Britain’s naval supremacy allowed it to maintain a free flow of raw materials, especially cotton, and to cut France
materials, especially cotton, and to cut France off from colonial products.off from colonial products.
4.8.
4.8. New inventions and new techniques of manufacturing were an inherent part of New inventions and new techniques of manufacturing were an inherent part of the
the IndIndustustriarial l RevRevoluolutiotion. n. NeiNeithether r BriBritaitain n nor nor FranFrance ce had had a a monmonopoopoly ly of of inventive genius. The names of J. M. Jacquard and Jacques de Vaucanson inventive genius. The names of J. M. Jacquard and Jacques de Vaucanson
(1709-82), both of whom contributed to the improvement of weaving machinery, testify to French mechanical ingenuity. But the factors mentioned above combined to give greater opportunity for English mechanical genius, which explains why most of the early inventors were British.
5. The Textile Industry:
A Case Study of Initiating Industrialization
5.1. The textile industry was the first to undergo industrialization. England’s moist climate, which prevented cotton threads from becoming brittle and breaking, made easier the application of machinery to the spinning and weaving processes in Lancashire, but other factors probably account for the fact that textiles took the lead in industrialization.
5.2. For one thing, faster and cheaper methods of production were necessary to meet the growing demand for textiles, especially the cottons and calicos that had been introduced from India. In addition, techniques for making cloth had already reached a high point of development; only minor changes were necessary to convert the processes from manual operations to semiautomatic or automatic operations propelled by mechanical power.
5.3. Finally, a large number of persons were engaged in spinning and weaving as a part-time home task under the domestic or “putting-out” system. Under this
system, entrepreneurs “putout” the raw materials to farm workers, who usually included the women and children of the household, and paid them at piece rates.
The problems connected with the spinning ad weaving processes, already specialized and carried on in separate households, stirred the imagination of many inventors, and the piece-rat payments stimulated thought about techniques for increasing the rate of production.
5.4. The rapidity with which changes were introduced in the textile industry illustrates the role of one invention in producing another in a related field.
*
The first of the great inventions was John Kay’s flying shuttle (1733), a mechanical device for throwing the weaving shuttle more quickly than could be done by hand. Kay’s device upset the usual ratio of four spinners to one weaver:either there had to be many more spinners or else spinning had to be similarly quickened by application of machinery.
*
James Hargreaves developed (1764-69) the spinning jenny, which mechanically reproduced the actions of the hand spinner.*
Richard Arkwright in 1769 patented the water frame, which produced a strong, well-twisted yarn suited for the warp of cotton goods and so named because it used water power.*
Samuel Crompton’s “mule” (1779), a cross between the water frame and the jenny, marked the next improvement in spinning devices.*
In the meantime the Rev. Edmund Cartwright set about mechanizing the weaving operation to take advantage of the then abundant yarn produced by Arkwright’s and Crompton’s machines. The result was the power loom (1785), a major step in applying mechanical power to weaving. Increased production of finished cotton goods in turn created a growing demand for raw cotton, but the supply lagged because of the labour involved in picking the seeds from the cotton bolls.*
In the United States, Eli Whitney solved the problem with his cotton gin (1973), which more than trebled the amount of cotton that a man could pick free of seeds per day and which caused the cotton crop to increase from 1,500,000 lb. in 1790 to 85,000,000 lb. in 1810. The cotton gin also stimulated the extension of the plantation system and Negro slavery in the South; it was indirectly responsible for producing the regional differences that eventually contributed to brining on the American Civil War. Meanwhile Samuel Slater and others introduced British machinery into the United States.5.5. In addition to leading in mechanical innovations, the textile industry was also the first to develop the new organization of production: the factory system. This was not the first time that workers had been concentrated under one roof under the close control of their employers. The royal manufactories in France, such as the Gobelin works, had come into existence almost a century before. And there had been factories in woolen industry in 16th-century England. There were other
isolated examples as far back as some pottery works in ancient Athens.
But the factory as the characteristics form for the organization of work grew out of the textile industry at the end of the 18th century. The factory gathered workers together and submitted them to the discipline of the machine. Within the factory there was division of labour , the workers performing specialized tasks.
5.6. Power-driven machinery in the factory resulted in the production of goods in quantities greater than were demanded by the immediate local market, or even the national market, and made world-wide commerce necessary. British raw cotton imports provided an index of the rapid advance in production. These imports quadrupled from 1765 to 1785, almost quadrupled again from 1785 to 1805, tripled during the succeeding two decades, more than tripled in the years between 1825 and 1845, and doubled again in the next 20 years.
5.7. By 1800 the chief inventions in the textile industry had been devised and the factory system established, the motive power being supplied chiefly by water . Although the steam engine is sometimes mistakenly credited with “causing” the Industrial Revolution, the industrial transformation had already begun before the steam engine came into widespread use. Water mills actually surpassed steam engines in aggregate power generated during the entire first century of the Industrial Revolution. Thus the Industrial Revolution might have taken place without James Watt. This is no to minimize Watt’s role, for his steam engine hastened the revolution and helped establish the industrial pattern of the future, but it did not create it.
5.8. James Watt arrived on the scene when the mining and metallurgical industries were rapidly expanding and when there was need for a machine of greater
efficiency than those currently used to pump water from the mines. Had this invention come earlier the techniques and machines to produce the metal shapes basic to his engine would not yet have existed; there might not have been
sufficient capital available to manufacture it on a commercial scale; and there probably would have been little demand for it.
5.9. However, the need for Watt’s invention and the opportunity for its adoption were provided by a series of prior and contemporaneous developments. The shortage of wood, necessitating a substitute fuel for charcoal in smelting, had given rise to successful attempts by Abraham Darby and his son early in the 1700s to reduce coal into coke by burning off the coal gas in an oven. Henry Cort’s invention (1784) of “ puddling ” (stirring molten pig iron in a reverberatory furnace to burn off impurities) and of a rolling mill with grooved rollers (1783) simplified and cheapened the production of wrought iron. The boring mill developed 1755 by John Wilkinson made it possible to bore cylinders to the fine limits of accuracy
required by Watt’s engine.
5.10. Equally important was a reservoir of knowledge and experience in working with the power of steam for pumping purposes: Edward Somerset’s “atmospheric engine” (c.1663); Thomas Savery’s first practical steam pump (1698), which raised water through the combination of a vacuum created by the condensation of steam and through steam pressure itself; Dennis Papin’s demonstration (1690) of the principle that steam could move a piston in a cylinder ; the atmospheric engine of Thomas Newcomen, who first (1712) established the steam engine as a practical and reliable machine; and John Smeaton’s application of engineering principles to raise the efficiency of the atmospheric steam engine about as high
as could be done with that type of engine.
5.11. By the middle of the 18th century, Newcomen’s “ fire-engine,” as it was then called, was widely used to pump water out of the Cornish tine mines. While engaged in repairing a model of the Newcomen engine at the University of Glasgow in 1764-65 Watt came upon his great idea. He took out his first patent in 1769. Watt’s engine might never have come into wide use had it not been for Matthew Boulton, a Birmingham industrialist , who provided capital and commercial acumen. By 1786 the firm of Boulton and Watt was prospering and by 1800 more than 500 of their engines had been built and set up both in England and abroad. For the first time mechanical power was independent of the movement of the wind or the location of water ; it could be used wherever needed.
The steam engine was eventually to become the symbol of the Industrial Revolution.
5.12. Manufacturers producing goods in large quantities needed faster and more economical means of transporting raw materials to their factories and sending their products to market. Canals and roads were improved and expanded.
5.13. But the most significant transportation development of the Industrial Revolution was steam locomotion. Parallel rails of a given gauge, suitably laid on a prepared roadbed, had been there were already “railways” long before Richard Trevithick’s high-pressure engine made possible the commercial steam railway and George Stephenson demonstrated the speed and efficiency of steam
locomotion. The Stockton and Darlington railway (1825), designed to carry coal from the mines to waterways, proved immediately successful, and within a few years England was covered with a railroad network. Other countries in Western Europe and in western hemisphere also began to build railways.
5.14. At the same time, steam was also being applied to water transportation. In 1807 Robert Fulton’s steamboat appeared on the Hudson river and water commercially
successful, but many yeas passed before the steamship replaced the sailing ship.
Britain’s leadership in the Industrial Revolution was brilliantly displayed in 1851 at the Great exhibition in London, which focused the attention of the world on British scientific and technological progress.
5.15. The second half of the 19th century marked a new phase of industrialization, evidenced among other things by the growing specialization of production, the
5.15. The second half of the 19th century marked a new phase of industrialization, evidenced among other things by the growing specialization of production, the