Traditionally quantitative or qualitative analyses in research are related with one philosophical school or the other. Characteristically quantitative research analysis is assumed to represent the positivist ontology and objectivist epistemology, while qualitative research becomes synonymous to constructivist ontology and interpretive epistemology. This approach is
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so much entrenched that the two technical terms are used interchangeably with the philosophical terminologies as demonstrated in the writings of Kuhn (1970) (Bryman, 2009, pp. 13-14). Bryman appeared to be so flabbergasted by this observation as to remark:“quite
why philosophical issues became entwined with matters of research practice to this degree is unclear.” He alluded that it might be the effect
of an effort by qualitative researchers to create merit for their relatively new approach, as it develops to provide alternative to the traditional scientific positivist approach. In anyway, it is logically sensible to provide an epistemological underpinning for any research undertaking for the findings to have credibility in the world of knowledge.
It is not surprising then when Saunders et al. (2012, p. 164) attempted to explain the combination of manifold research analytical procedures and data collection systems as the expected outcomes of some philosophical suppositions. The critical realists and pragmatism were cited by these authors as examples of philosophical assumptions that are more inclined to beget multiple research methods. While any of the inductive and deductive research logics can possibly work with multiple research method, it was described as more friendly to the combination of the two, or rather abductive approach (Saunders et al., 2012). The pragmatic philosophical stance and abductive approach of this research as discussed in the previous sections of this chapter twist it towards the multiple or mixed method strategy. Moreover, the philosophical positions assumed in this research are more favourable to the use of mixed methods.
A mixed methods research as described by Bryman (2008), refers to any one research undertaking that combines both qualitative and quantitative researches. Saunders et al. (2012) however, employed the term multiple methods and described it as the practice of answering research questions by utilising a plurality of data collection techniques and analytical procedures. Furthermore, they distinguished mixed method from
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multimethod, whereby mixed method was expatiated as the single, or multiple phase incorporation of data collection techniques and analytical procedures that transcend the traditional qualitative and quantitative researches dichotomy. Multimethod on the other hand, may incorporate diverse data collection techniques without necessarily crossing the traditional boundaries. A research can be labelled as partially or fully
integrated mixed method research depending on the use of different
methods throughout the stages of the research or at only one stage or the other (Saunders et al., 2012, pp. 164-166).
Nonetheless, philosophical supposition is not the only reason that can influence a research undertaking to adopt mixed methods. On the contrary, Greene, Caracelli, and Graham (1989) identified five justifications that might prompt the choice of mixed method for a research project. These are triangulation, complementarity, development, initiation, and expansion. Triangulation was clarified as intentional use of different methods with contrasting biases to examine the same phenomenon for possible convergence of outcomes, thus improving the legitimacy of the results. Complementarity refers to, elaboration, enhancement, illustration, and clarification of findings from one method by another. Situation where findings of one method serve as the determinant factor for employing the other method was referred to as
development. Initiation on the other hand is used to describe the practice
of using one method for better appreciation of the subject of inquiry to “kick-start” the research process while a shift to another method may become imperative at a later part of the research. Mixed method may be used as what was termed expansion, to broaden the scope of the research whereby different methods may be employed for different aspects of the research (Greene et al., 1989).
While the Greene et al. (1989) prominent framework for the possible explanations for using mixed methods in research was limited to five, in
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their essay on the application of mixed methods in the built-environment research, Dilanthi, David, Marjan, and Rita (2002) recognised only three of such reasons that may warrant the use of mixed-methods. Nonetheless, the three reasons cited by these authors coincided with the triangulation, development, and initiation as enumerated in the (Greene et al., 1989) concept.
On the other hand, Saunders et al. (2012, p. 169) acknowledged all the five reasons enumerated by (Greene et al., 1989) with slight difference in terminologies; and moreover, five additional justifications for mixing methods in research were enumerated by them. According to these authors, the utilisation of one method for the “interpretation” of another can be a reason for combining methods in the same research. They also argued that, it is important in some studies to present “diversity of views” provided by the use of more than one method. Moreover, they believe that the findings from a research conducted using one method may not be satisfactory, and therefore the use of another method is justified to “solve
problem”. Furthermore, it was reasoned by these authors that,
researchers might sometimes realise that it will be more fruitful to “focus” a varied method for dissimilar aspects of the research. Moreover, in another situation researcher may simply wish to have greater
“confidence” in the results generated in a research by mixing methods to
arrive at a conclusion. Hence, interpretation, diversity of views, problem
solving, focus, and confidence were the five additional justifications for
mixing methods in research developed by Saunders et al. (2012).
The resolve to adopt a pragmatist stance provides the opportunity to employ a plethora of methods, which as discussed above, there exist a menu of ten justifications for using multiple methods in a single research. Nevertheless, adopting pragmatist philosophical stance does not suggests employing multiple methods automatically in all circumstances; rather it is a situational decision whereby the research questions or objectives
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determine the methods to be invoked to provide the best possible answers.
It is important to note that, the research objectives 2 and 3 are answered in a descriptive format in the literature review in chapters 2 and 3 which is a characteristic of qualitative researches as highlighted by (Bryman, 2012, p. 401). He described qualitative researches as being characterised by “thick descriptions” with detail information on the context, which is more favourable to idiographic approaches rather than nomothetic. In this approach, processes and sequential development of events with time are stressed, while the participants are usually little. The interconnection between different aspects and the resultant phenomenon is studied over long period. Participant observation as in ethnographic studies is commonly associated with qualitative researches; however, same results can sometimes be obtained through semi-structured or unstructured interviews, and documents analysis (Bryman, 2012, pp. 402-403).
Additionally, qualitative researchers prefer hermeneutic and dialectic approaches (Guba & Lincoln, 1989), to understand the context of study in the perspective of the participants while adopting the posture of “learner- insider” (Blaikie, 2007, p. 11), rather than imposing a preconceived stature on the enquiry. This is in direct conflict with the approach adopted in this research as explained in the previous section, where the reverse is the case. Nevertheless, as purism is not the accepted “modus operandi” of this inquiry, the most appropriate method will be deployed as a respond to the nature of the objectives of the study sought to be achieved, which is in line with the argument of Yin (1994). Moreover, a qualitative approach to quantitative research and vice versa, can be an acceptable practice in research (Bryman, 2012, pp. 622-624). Consequently, the other research objectives were tackled using the most appropriate method, which was considered qualitative, and is in agreement with the epistemological stance established earlier.
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Nevertheless, qualitative researches are criticised as being subjective, difficult to replicate or generalised, and lack of transparency (Bryman, 2012, pp. 405-406). These same attributes make the credibility of quantitative researches to be assessable whereas in qualitative researches there is no consensual criteria for assessment (Hammersley, 2008). Contrastingly, qualitative research purists Guba and Lincoln (1989), argued that such set of criteria for assessing the quality of an inquiry can only be valid for inquiries grounded in the positivist ontology and epistemology. They rather suggested an alternative set of criteria for assessing the worth of qualitative research that is grounded in the constructivist philosophy as discussed below (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, pp. 233-251).
Credibility is the equivalent of the internal validity in quantitative research, which is used to prove a causal relationship between variables. Prolonged engagement, persistent observation, peer debriefing, negative case analysis, progressive subjectivity, and member checks are suggested as the techniques that may be used to improve the worthiness of a qualitative investigation. The effect of misinformation and distortion can be minimised through long period contact with the study site and persistent observation (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, p. 237). Nevertheless, the same result can be obtained from the detailed account of participants that have been a part of the study site for long period as in this study by the use of an in-depth semi-structured interview.
Peer debriefing is an interaction and critique by a peer who is neutral as another check and balance method that can be employed to improve the worthiness of a qualitative inquiry. Alternative hypothesis testing and rejection referred to as negative case analysis is another way to reinforce the validity of a research that is qualitative in nature. The process of theory development can be monitored by a third party to guard against bias to the researcher’s predisposition in what is sometimes termed
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progressive subjectivity. Member checks is another approach of establishing qualitative research credibility, whereby the participants crosscheck the interpretation of the researcher to confirm that it is truly representative of their views (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, pp. 237-241).
Generalisation is another concept not in tune with qualitative researches, as it suggests an existence of an absolute truth that is applicable to all situations. Moreover, it advocates that whatever concept is developed by the researcher can be assumed to function on all the subjects by the virtue of data obtained from a sample selected at random. Qualitative researchers alternatively view transferability of a research finding to be the preoccupation of the beneficiary who may consider it suitable for application in a different context. What qualitative researchers do is to provide a detailed study that is specific to time, place, context, and culture (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, pp. 241-242). While the measure of the stability of a concept throughout the study is considered a proof of reliability, in qualitative approaches paradigm shifts are expected part of a study and is considered reliable when such changes are documented, transparent, and confirmable.
Confirmability is a process of ensuring that the findings of a research are neutral and not influenced by the researchers’ values, motives, biases, or political inclination. This can be achieved by making the findings and processes used to arrive at the findings transparent and available for inspection by a third party, in what was described as confirmability audit (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, pp. 242-243). They further argued qualitative methods that incorporate hermeneutic dialectic approaches whereby information obtained is immediately analysed and presented to the respondents for review is a self-correcting procedure that increase the worthiness of an inquiry. On the other hand, they contended that credibility of methods should not be emphasized to the detriment of the outcome of the research and fairness to the view of the participants and
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different type of authenticity mechanisms (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, pp. 245-250).
On the other hand, relativists and postmodernists de-emphasize these criteria as epistemic, and rather stressed the importance of political, ethical, and practical considerations. Nevertheless, there is no criteria whatsoever that can be used to assess the quality of an inquiry with absolute certainty, rather knowledge claim can only be judged on its most likely probability to be truth (Hammersley, 2008).
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REGULATORY
CRITERIA
QUANTITATIVE
METHODOLOGY
QUALITATIVE
METHODOLOGY
Veracity Internal Validity Credibility:
Prolonged engagement Persistent observation Peer debriefing
Negative case analysis Progressive subjectivity Member checks
Applicability External validity/
generalisation
Transferability
Consistency Reliability Dependability
Neutrality Objectivity Confirmability
Method - Hermeneutic/ Inter subjectivity Trustworthiness - Authenticity Fairness Ontological Educative Catalytic Tactical
Table 3: Validation Criteria in Quantitative and Qualitative Methodology after (Guba & Lincoln, 1989).
In the foregoing discussion, it has been demonstrated that the pragmatism disposition of the researcher paved the way for the use of any method that is most suitable to achieve the research objectives. A reflection on the study objectives as discussed in chapter 1 suggested that qualitative approach would be more suitable. Nevertheless, qualitative research is criticised for being subjective, non-transparent, not generalizable, and cannot be replicated. Qualitative researchers on the other hand provide defences for the quality of their approach that are parallel to the concepts used in the traditional methods as well as those that are unique to qualitative research (see Table 3). There is also another school of thought that disagrees with any epistemic criteria for judging the validity of research finding in favour of ethics, applicability, and politics. It was further observed that no criteria could be used to certify any research finding with absolute certainty, except its likelihood
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to be correct. This provides the theoretical background that justifies the suitability or unsuitability of the practical technique(s) employed in the field. One of the practical constraints in a study of this nature is time, as discussed in the following section.