III. DERECHOS FUNDAMENTALES VULNERADOS
1.2. Contenido del derecho fundamental a la participación ciudadana
Franck was born in Zittau on the eastern border of Germany near Dresden, where he likely en-countered Christoph Demantius, Kapellmeister of the Johanneskirche and director of the Johan-neum Gymnasium Singechor from 1597 until 1604. In 1600 Franck became a singer at the church of St Anna in Augsburg, and the following year he moved to Nuremberg to teach at the Egidienkirche. While in both Augsburg and Nuremberg it is probable that he came into contact with Hans Leo Hassler, who held positions in Augsburg from 1585 to 1601 and in Nuremberg thereafter. From 1602 or 1603 until his death approximately thirty-six years later Franck served as Kapellmeister to Duke Johann Casimir and his successor, Johann Ernst in Coburg.
Franck composed more than twelve hundred works, including one mass, thirty-three Mag-nificats, 560 motets, and numerous chorale settings, vocal concertos, and lieder. The motets, published in forty collections between 1601 and 1636 (more than one collection per year), are Franck’s most significant works. A majority are in a prima prattica style and in German, al-though the motets in four collections have basso continuo parts, and the Latin compositions have German translations. The collection entitled Contrapuncti compositi deutscher Psalmen und anderer geistlichen Kirchengesäng of 1602 contains twenty-four four-voiced motets (Franck com-posed twenty-two of them and Christoph Buel comcom-posed two) that are characterized by point-of-imitation phrases and occasional word painting. An example of the strict point-point-of-imitation technique is Vater Unser im Himmelreich, which incorporates the Lutheran chorale into the so-prano voice part. Examples of the imitative technique with word painting include the four-voice setting of Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir, in which the lower voices express the phrase “Herr Gott, erhör mein Rufen” (Lord God, hear my call) as if calling to God in heaven from earth below, and Ich ruf zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ (I call to you, Lord Jesus Christ), which has an extended melisma on the word “klagen” (bewail). The collection Gemmulae evangeliorum musicae of 1623 contains short, homophonic settings of biblical texts and Lutheran chorales meant for small, inexperi-enced choirs, churches with depleted forces because of the Thirty Years War, and home devo-tional use. An example is Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt (John 2:16). The collection Geistliche Gesäng und Melodeyen (1608) contains some of Franck’s most notable motets, including numer-ous settings of texts from the Song of Solomon. Three of these have become popular—Du bist aller Dinge schön (4:7–11), Meine Schwester, liebe Braut (4:12–16), and Ich sucht des Nachts (3:1–4).
The scoring of all three motets is for SSATTB chorus, text settings are mainly syllabic, and
ttures are basically imitative, with occasional passages of homophony, polychoral e¤ects, ex-changes of short motifs, and word painting. Three other notable motets set to texts from the Song of Solomon, all scored for SATB/SATB, are Steh auf, meine Freundin (2:10–14), Ich schlafe, aber mein Herz (5:2–6), and Was ist dein Freund für andern Freunden (5:9–16).
Apart from the published collections mentioned above, Franck was one of sixteen com-posers who composed a setting of Das ist mir lieb (Psalm 116) for the 1616 publication Angst der Hellen und Friede der Seelen, commissioned by the wealthy merchant from Jena, Burckhard Grossmann. Christoph Demantius, Michael Praetorius, Heinrich Schütz, and Johann Hermann Schein also contributed to this publication.
The secular music, published in thirteen collections between 1602 and 1623, consists mostly of homophonic, strophic, and syllabic settings of folk-like texts. Examples from Musik-alischer Bergkreyen of 1602 include Das Bergwerk wolln wir preisen, So wünsch ich ihr, Wie möcht ich frölich werden, and Ach schönes Jungfräulein. All begin with a solo tenor phrase and continue with scoring for SATB voices. In addition, all have three verses and are in an AAB structure. A few secular pieces are motet-like, with scoring for larger forces, alternating sections of imitative polyphony and homophony, and occasional word painting. Examples include O dass ich dich, mein Bruder for SSATB and Fahet uns die Füchse for SSATTB, this latter piece containing expres-sive melismas on the word “Hirsch” (stag). Finally, Franck composed eleven quodlibets, most published in 1622. Examples, all for SATB voices, include Compania, Nun fanget an, and Lasst uns fröhlich singen. The latter two pieces have solfege and fa la la syllables intermixed with the narrative texts.
sacred works
selected and listed according to familiarity
Vater unser im Himmelreich – SATB chorus – 5 minutes.
Du bist aller Dinge schön – SSATB chorus – 3:15 minutes.
Meine Schwester, liebe Braut – SSATTB chorus – 3 minutes.
Ich sucht des Nachts – SSATTB chorus – 2:45 minutes.
Steh auf, meine Freundin – SATB/SATB chorus – 4 minutes.
Ich schlafe, aber mein Herz – SATB/SATB chorus – 4 minutes.
Was ist dein Freund für andern Freunden – SATB/SATB chorus – 3:45 minutes.
Aus tiefer Not schrei ich zu dir – SATB chorus – 3 minutes. There is another setting of this text for SATTB chorus.
Ich ruf zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ – SATB chorus – 3 minutes.
Also hat Gott die Welt geliebt – SATB chorus – 2 minutes.
Der Herr ist mein getreuer Hirt – SATB chorus – 2:30 minutes.
Herr, nun lässest du deinen Diener – SSAB/ATTB chorus – 3 minutes.
Meine Seele erhebt (German Magnificat) – SATB chorus – 3 minutes.
secular works
selected and listed according to familiarity
Das Bergwerk wolln wir preisen – SATB voices – 2:30 minutes.
So wünsch ich ihr – SATB voices – 2:30 minutes.
Wie möcht ich frölich werden – SATB voices – 2:30 minutes.
Nun fanget an – SATB voices – 3 minutes.
Lasst uns fröhlich singen – SATB voices – 3 minutes.
O England O
T
he Renaissance era in England was significantly di¤erent from the era in other countries because of the simple fact that England had little foreign influence. English Renaissance composers, except for one (Richard Dering), did not study abroad, and only one foreign com-poser of any distinction (Alfonso Ferrabosco) was employed in England. Some musical scores from other countries were imported, but these were basically limited to Italian madrigals at the end of the sixteenth century. The insular nature of England’s musical climate resulted in a rel-atively late beginning and a very late end to the era. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, English composers such as Robert Fayrfax, William Cornysh, and John Taverner were still writing in Medieval styles, and during the first several decades of the seventeenth century, composers were either ignorant of or uninterested in seconda prattica developments. Consequently, while foreign composers such as Josquin Desprez and Pierre de la Rue were initiating the Renaissance era with new imitative textures during the 1520s, and Claudio Monteverdi and Heinrich Schütz were embracing new Baroque era forms and genres during the early years of the seventeenth century, English composers were adhering to such older forms and structures as Medieval polyphony at the beginning of the Renaissance and prima prattica styles and structures at the be-ginning of the Baroque. The Renaissance did not begin in England until the latter years of King Henry VIII’s turbulent reign (which ended in 1547), and the era did not come to a complete end until the death of Thomas Tomkins in the 1650s.Renaissance England was also unique in a number of other ways. For one, there was little e¤ort to notate composers’ biographical information, including birth dates and places and mu-sical training. This kind of information was insignificant to people of the time, even for com-posers such as Christopher Tye and Thomas Tallis, who both became important members of the royal court and therefore whose activities during their childhood could have been recorded for historical record. On the other hand, English composers were interested in formal academic ed-ucation. Of the forty-one composers who wrote significant works during the era and who are discussed in this section of the Renaissance, twenty-one of them received degrees from either Oxford or Cambridge universities (eleven from Oxford and ten from Cambridge). One com-poser, Thomas Bateson, received a degree from Trinity College, Dublin.
England was like France in having a center of musical activity at the royal court. Thirteen English composers were singers and/or organists at the Chapel Royal, and a number of other composers were instrumentalists for the kings and queens and their children. Interestingly, the designation for a singer of the Chapel Royal was “Gentleman,” which was one of the highest musical ranks one could attain. England was like both France and Germany in dealing with the conflicting musical and religious circumstances of Roman Catholicism and the new Protestant faith. In England, Henry VII (1485–1509) was Catholic; Henry VIII (1509–1547), while in name a Protestant, still favored Catholic church music; Edward VI (1547–1553) was decidedly Angli-can and supported the musical reforms of Oliver Cromwell and Thomas Cranmer; Mary Tudor (1553–1558) was Catholic and returned the court to traditional Latin genres; Elizabeth I (1558–
1603) was an Anglican who encouraged the composition of both English anthems and Latin motets, both in simple and complex styles; and James I (1603–1625) and Charles I (1625–1649) were both Anglicans who supported only English church music.
The sacred Catholic genres consisted mainly of the mass, Magnificat, and motet. Hymn-like Psalm settings for Anglican psalters were also composed, but not in significant quantities by no-table composers. The masses were composed without Kyries (which were occasionally written separately), the Magnificats were almost exclusively in alternatim style, and the motets were gen-erally long polyphonic votive antiphons early in the era and shorter imitative works thereafter.
The sacred Anglican genres consisted of the Service and the anthem. Most of the Services, like the masses in that they were musical settings of regular liturgical texts, were given Latin titles but were set to English texts. The Te Deum was sung to “We praise thee, O God,” the Benedic-tus to “Blessed be the Lord God of Israel,” the Creed to “I believe in one God,” the Magnificat to
“My soul doth magnify the Lord,” and the Nunc dimittis to “Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace.” Other settings of Service music included the Venite sung to “O come, let us sing unto the Lord,” Jubilate to “Be joyful in the Lord, all ye lands,” Kyrie to “Lord, have mercy upon us,” Sanctus to “Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of hosts,” and Gloria to “Glory be to God on high.” The anthems were in two formats—full and verse. The full anthems were scored for cho-rus alone and were either small-scale basically homophonic pieces for four- or five-part chocho-rus, or large-scale motet-like works with overlapping points of imitation. The verse anthems were scored for soloists, chorus, and either organ or ensemble of viols.
The scoring for much of the sacred music, both in Latin and English, was for SSATB cho-rus, with the various voice parts called treble, mean, contratenor, tenor, and bass. The treble signified a part for boys’ voices, or choristers, with a high range or tessitura; the mean was a part for choristers that was a bit lower or average in range (common); the contratenor part was for male altos; and the tenor and bass parts were in traditional ranges for men. The singers were di-vided into two ensembles that faced each other in the area of the church, called the choir, located between the nave and the high altar; the ensemble on the right side of the choir was called de-cani (the dean’s side of the altar), while the ensemble on the left side was called cantoris (the can-tor’s side of the altar). Composers often indicated in the scores of anthems and Services that one or the other side was to sing alone (signified by the abbreviation dec. or can.) or that both sides were to sing together (signified by the term full). Soloists in both anthems and Services were members of and sang from the chorus, and organ accompaniment was common, whether specifically scored or not. Organists played from vocal bass parts and improvised chords from the harmonies produced by the upper parts, or they wrote out reductions of the vocal parts in scores. Examples of these reductions exist in the famous Batten Organbook.
The secular genres consisted of the part song, madrigal, canzonet, ballett, and air (generally spelled “ayer” at that time). The part song—which was a short, homophonic, and strophic piece with verses and a refrain (called a burden)—existed early in the era, whereas the other genres were predominant from the 1580s until the 1650s. The madrigal, canzonet, and ballett were modeled on Italian counterparts that were imported to England and published in collections such as Musica transalpina (Music across the Alps) in 1588 and Italian Madrigalls Englished in 1590. Musica transalpina, edited by Nicholas Yonge, a collector of Italian madrigal books, con-tained English translations of five-voiced madrigals by Alfonso Ferrabosco and Marenzio and a number of four-voiced madrigals by Palestrina. Italian Madrigalls Englished, edited by Thomas Watson, a leader of the British elite, contained English translations of more five-voiced madri-gals by Marenzio. A second volume of Musica transalpina followed in 1597 along with Thomas Morley’s Canzonets or Little Short Songs to Foure Voyces: celected out of the Best and Approved Ital-ian Authors. This latter collection featured canzonets and ballettos by Orazio Vecchi, Giovanni Croce, and Felice Anerio. A similar collection, Madrigals to Five Voyces: celected out of the Best Ap-proved Italian Authors, followed the next year, and in 1601 Morley published The Triumphes of Oriana—a book of English madrigals by native composers based directly on the Italian collec-tion Il Trionfo di Dori published in 1592. Both publicacollec-tions contain a similar number of six-voiced madrigals, canzonets, and ballettos or balletts by representative composers of the time, and all the pieces in both collections end with a similar text phrase—“Viva la bella Dori” (Long live fair Dori) in the Italian collection, and “Long live fair Oriana” in the English collection.
The English madrigal was like its Italian counterpart in being characterized by imitative polyphony, with word painting being a significant feature in the late years of the era. There were some striking di¤erences, however. The English madrigal was more tonal and less rhythmically diverse, with word painting that was more obvious. The ballett, which was the most popular sec-ular form in England, was like the Italian ballettos by Gastoldi, with homophonic textures, re-peated musical passages, dance-like rhythms, and fa la la refrains. The canzonet was also homo-phonic, but unlike the ballett, it was more song-like (i.e., the topmost voice part was melodically prominent and the lower voice parts were accompanimental in nature, often with brief portions of imitation). The madrigals, canzonets, and balletts were scored for voices alone but were pub-lished with the expectation that performance would involve an ensemble of viols, either with singers colla parte or in place of singers. Indeed, the titles of virtually all publications contained the phrase “apt for both voices and viols.” The air, which was a development of the canzonet, was first a song for solo voice with lute accompaniment (called a lute song) and later a vocal en-semble piece with all voice parts texted. Composers of airs generally set them both in solo and ensemble formats.
Two features of notation in England are particularly important and relevant to performance.
The first, called “voice exchange,” relates to the frequent practice of scoring two voice parts in the same range or tessitura, with melodic material exchanged imitatively between the two at the same pitch level. This practice of notation, which was most common in two soprano parts, was intended to produce an interchange of identical or similar timbres. Thus the two parts were sung by voices compatible in vocal quality, not by voices of di¤ering qualities. That is, one part was not sung by sopranos (boy choristers) and the other by altos (male contratenors), nor was one sung by high sopranos (trebles) and the other by lower sopranos (mean). Instead, both parts were sung by voices of the same tessitura and vocal quality, either treble or mean, or a mixture of both on each part. The compatibility of vocal timbres between two parts participating in voice
exchange is especially critical in the performance of pieces such as the famous O pray for the peace of Jerusalem by Thomas Tomkins, which is scored for SSTB, not SATB as is frequently in-dicated in present-day publications.
The second important notational feature in England during the Renaissance, called “cross relation” or “false relation,” is the dissonance that occurs with the simultaneous or near simul-taneous sounding of two notes a half step apart from each other. This dissonance is generally caused when a note in one voice part is the lowered seventh degree of the scale (approached melodically from below), while a note in another voice part is the raised seventh degree of the scale (approached melodically from above). Both notes are generally the same pitch, the one ap-proached from below marked with a flat sign and the one apap-proached from above not marked (or marked with a natural sign), or the lower one not marked and the higher one marked with a sharp sign. The e¤ect caused by the cross relation, comparable to that caused by musica ficta and musica recta in music by continental composers, was not particularly dissonant to the ear, because the tuning during the Renaissance was more varied than today; during the Renaissance the raised pitch was slightly higher and the lowered pitch was slightly lower than those pitches would sound in today’s equal-tempered tuning system.
The major composers of the era, those generally noted for both their sacred and secular music, are Robert Fayrfax, William Cornysh, John Taverner, Christopher Tye, Thomas Tallis, John Sheppard, William Byrd, Thomas Morley, Thomas Tomkins, Thomas Weelkes, Richard Dering, and Orlando Gibbons. Composers of lesser significance who wrote and were noted mostly for their sacred music are Robert Johnson, John Marbeck, Richard Farrant, William Mundy, Robert Parsons, Robert White, Nathaniel Giles, John Bull, Adrian Batten, Robert Ram-sey, and John Hilton. Composers whose relative fame came mostly from their secular music are Henry VIII, Thomas Greaves, Michael Cavendish, George Kirbye, John Bennet, Thomas Vautor, John Farmer, Thomas Bateson, Francis Pilkington, Michael East, John Ward, and Thomas Ravenscroft. In addition, John Dowland, Thomas Campion, Robert Jones, and Thomas Ford were significant composers of airs, and John Wilbye was one of the major composers of madri-gals. Finally, Giles Farnaby was a minor composer recognized for both his sacred and secular music.
Not all noteworthy choral repertoire of the English Renaissance is identified with a known composer. The authorship of several popular and frequently performed anthems, for instance, is unknown. These include the sixteenth-century Rejoice in the Lord alway, with text from Philip-pians 4:4–7; O Lord, the maker of all thing of about 1548, with text from the 1545 edition of the King’s Primer; and the Easter Gradual This is the day which the Lord hath made of about 1600, with text from Psalm 118:24.