I employed in-depth interviews as my main data collection technique as these allowed me to capture how villagers experience and make sense of their everyday lives and activities (Marshall and Rossman 1999: 110). In-depth interviewing also allowed me to understand how interviewees perceive, view, interpret, and react to particular issues and situations. I employed in-depth interviews with two main respondents: villagers and ‘elites’ (I discuss below the differences and limitations of employing this technique to both groups of informants.) As in-depth interviews are “a conversation with a purpose” (Kahn and Cannell 1957 cited in Marshall and Rossman 1999: 108), I attempted to make my interviews like conversations with my respondents rather than a kind of “question and answer”. It was not only me who guided these conversations, but my respondents also framed and shaped our conversations. Though I had lists of questions that I intended to explore, I did not stick to my question lists. In many instances it was only a few questions at the early stage of the conversations that were framed by me; from then on, questions and conversations were generally shaped by the responses of my informants. There were several times when I learnt that it is always worth letting interviewees shape conversations because these revealed relevant and significant issues that would otherwise have been overlooked. But, as pointed out by O’Brien (2006: 29), the best way to discover the situation in the field is “to let our informants talk and [researchers] just listen”. Letting informants speak always led me to gain data which I had not anticipated.
3.5.2.1 In-depth interviews with uplanders
In-depth interviews were the major method for gaining local, grounded perspectives from villagers. Table 3.3 provides a summary of my interviewees in each study village. I attempted to undertake in-depth interviews with villagers of different economic status (poorest, poor, and less poor), gender (female and male), and generations (young, middle-aged, and old-aged groups). As noted above, I discussed who I should interview with each village’s headman and committees, as key gatekeepers at the village level, giving them my ideas on particular types of villagers I would like to interview. My criteria, however, were too numerous for these village gatekeepers, while some recommended villagers were too busy to be available for interview. I later adopted a snowball sampling technique by asking my interviewees to recommend further potential interviewees, as a means of breaking away from the gatekeepers’ recommendations
84 Table 3.3 Summary of interviewees from the study villages
Village
Less Poor Poor Poorest Total
Female Male Female Male Female Male
young middle old young middle old young middle old young middle old young middle old young middle old
Houay Luang Mai
1 2 1 2 2 3 2 1 0 1 3 1 1 4 1 1 2 2 30
Pha Lad
1 2 0 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 0 2 3 1 26
Kaem Khong
1 1 0 1 2 1 0 2 0 1 2 1 0 2 0 1 2 0 17
Don Tha
1 2 1 1 0 3 1 1 0 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 25
Total 4 7 2 5 7 8 4 5 1 6 9 5 4 9 2 5 8 6 97
Source: Fieldwork interviews, 2009-2010
85 (see 3.5.1). There were also some interviewees who were accessed by chance and who I just happened to run into. Though I had my preferred categories of interviewees, so that I could cast my interpretive net as widely as possible, some were hard to access; this applied to younger women and the elderly (see Table 3.3). The most accessible villagers were those of middle-age, both female and male, and these therefore form the majority of my interviewees.
I conducted in-depth interviews with villagers in my study villages in order to collect data at three levels: village, household and individual. Table 3.4 provides a summary of the data collected at each level using such in-depth interviews.
Table 3.4 Summary of data collected by in-depth interviews, 2009-2010
Levels Data collected interviewees
Village - the village’s history, settlement, migration - an overview of the villages’ socio-economic development
- an overview of the villages’ agriculture, land and forest relations
- personal experiences of market relations and state involvement
- explanations and perspectives on situations they confronted/confront and responses to them
- views about the future
-villagers
Source: Fieldwork interviews, 2009-2010
86 It is important to note that while in-depth interviews allowed me to get data from my study villages at individual, household, and village levels, the boundaries between these three levels were never clear. When I conducted the in-depth interviews, I usually began with questions on each respondent’s personal life and history (such as childhood, migration, personal experience of the market, views about the future etc.) before extending into sets of questions at the household level (such as household agriculture, household land use, household crisis and so on) and conversations reflecting conditions in the village more widely (settlement, infrastructure development, market integration, rubber expansion into the village, and so on). When I did in-depth interviews with villagers, I found that individual stories and experiences reflected not only individual life and perspectives, but they also reflected on wider socio-economic situations, either at a village level or beyond. Thus the individual life of my interviewees can be linked to, for instance, political conflicts in the Lao PDR, migration and resettlement policies, policies on and implementation of opium eradication, disease, and so on. It is also important to note that there were always difficulties in identifying whether my interviewees’ perspectives reflected individual views or household views. The lines between these three levels were never, therefore, altogether clear.
All in-depth interviews were conducted by myself. Realising that tape-recording might affect the ways in which informants responded to the research (Crang and Cook 1995: 29) and give the sensitiveness of my research topics, I did not use any kind of voice–recording when I conducted in-depth interviews. I was afraid that voice-recording would create a sense of insecurity among my upland interviewees who might not understand why their voices had to be recorded and whether this would have an impact on them. Thus the interviews were recorded in the form of note-taking. Before and during the interview, I always assured interviewees that they and their identities would remain anonymous. I also informed my informants that they could stop the conversation with me at any time in case they felt uncomfortable. However, none of my interviewees asked that the interview be stopped. This might be optimistically interpreted as indicating that my interviewees felt comfortable in allowing me to explore their lives, but it may also reflect power relations between me and my research subjects. My identity as a Thai student studying in the UK, often accompanied by a local state official, with an official letter from the state asking villagers to give their cooperation, might have caused the villagers to think they had no choice but to answer my questions.
87 Language barriers were another challenge. I did my research with four ethnic groups (Akha, Khmu, Kui and Lahu) in four upland communities. It was impossible for me to learn their languages. Thanks to the similarity between the Lao and Thai languages, this allowed me to conduct my research in Lao/northern Thai21. Most of my upland interviewees can communicate in Lao and they were able to understand my northern Thai. There were a few cases where villagers could not communicate in Lao/northern Thai, and in these instances an interpreter was needed. In the case of Don Tha village, two interviews (both interviewees were female) needed to be carried out through interpretation and in these cases a Lao local state official who accompanied me into the village acted as my interpreter.
In the case of Houay Luang Mai, I employed one young male Akha in the village as my assistant and interpreter but most of the interviews were carried out using Lao/northern Thai, with the exception of a few elderly villagers. In Pha Lad, as some villagers had recently moved from distant uplands, it was always difficult to conduct the interviews in Lao/northern Thai. Around one-third of the interviews in this village were carried out through an interpreter who was also an Akha but from a village near the district centre. In Kaem Khong village, all interviews with Lahu villagers and most of the Kui villagers were carried out in Lao/northern Thai. As Kui villagers can communicate in Akha, one interview was conducted through my Akha translator. Bearing in mind that translation is not a neutral exercise (Smith 1996; Temple and Young 2004; Turner 2010), this need for interpretation injected further challenges into the research process including loss of meaning. Thus, during conversations with villagers, data was (re)checked regularly to minimise any misunderstanding or misinterpretation. Research notes were made in Thai, attempting to maintain the senses and meanings which might otherwise have been lost in direct translation from Lao into English.
3.5.2.2 In-depth interviews with the ‘elite’
When we talk about ‘elite’ interviewing or researching, there is a question of what we mean by elite. How does researching or interviewing ‘elites’ differ from researching ordinary research subjects? (See Richards 1996: 199; Scheyvens et al. 2003: 183; and Smith
21 North-eastern Thai is the closest Thai dialect to the Lao language. While I can fully understand it, I have very limited ability to speak this dialect. I can, however, manage to speak northern Thai which is closer to the Lao language than standard Thai. Thus I used my northern Thai to conduct my research.
88 2006: 646). For methodological purposes, I follow the general view that elites are those individuals who are “exercising the major share of authority, or control within society, organizations and institutions. Elite status stems from the control of human, capital, decision making and knowledge resources” (Desmond 2004: 264). Following the suggestion of Marshall and Rossman (1999: 113) that elite interviews allow a researcher to gain an overview of an organisation (in the case of my research, the organisations of the state and private companies), including its policies, practices and future plans, and its relationship to other organisations, I carried out elite interviews with state officials, traders, and investors.
The nature of ‘elite’ interviews poses different challenges from researching ‘down’ for a researcher (Cormode and Hughes 1999 cited in Scheyvens et al. 2003: 184; Desmond 2004:
262). Doing ‘elite’ interviews in the Lao PDR was no exception. The challenges I confronted came through two sets of overlapping issues: practicalities and positionality (Scheyvens et al. 2003: 184). As far as practicalities were concerned, the greatest challenge came not from deciding whom I should interview but gaining access to them. When I began my research in September 2009, I discussed the potential ‘elites’ that I should interview with Ajarn (a lecturer) Saythong in the Faculty of Agriculture at NUOL, my host institution in the Lao PDR. In order to gain access to state officials, an official letter from the president of NUOL to the head of the respective state agency was required. Letters were sent to six state agencies in Vientiane, the capital city of the Lao PDR. Ajarn Saythong and I were told that we needed to call back later to check whether we would be allowed to meet any officials from these agencies, and if so when we could meet them. However, when we called back, we were always informed that “your request is being considered, please could you ring back again tomorrow”. However, Ajarn Saythong, with his direct experience in dealing with the Lao bureaucratic system, was adept at sorting out this problem and suggested that, although we had not yet got a confirmed time, we should present ourselves at the agencies in question and see if there was someone whom we could talk to. I initially hesitated to use this solution as I felt that it might disturb officials while they were busy at work. I finally decided, however, to follow his suggestion. In this way, I managed to interview officials from four state agencies. It should be noted that Ajarn Saythong’s personal connections were also very significant in helping me gain access to these officials;
he knew at least one person (his ex-students, his former undergraduate classmates, or friends) in the four organisations where I undertook elite interviews (see the list of elite interviewees in Appendix 3).
89 The situation in Luang Namtha was different. When Ajarn Saythong and I got to the Luang Namtha PAFO, the deputy head of PAFO, who had already received a copy of the letter from NUOL’s president, was waiting to discuss my research project. He even invited one of the PAFO’s officials who was able to provide me with a huge amount of data on rubber plantations in Luang Namtha to join the meeting. When I went to the district level, with a letter from PAFO in my hand, I was always impressed by senior officials at the DAFO who allowed me to interview them, even when I had not made an appointment in advance.
DAFO officials also provided me with a letter to access other government agencies in each district. It is important to note that one significant reason why senior officials at local levels, especially at the district level, willingly agreed to be interviewed was the nature of the political and bureaucratic system in the Lao PDR – namely, its top-down structure. Thus local authorities always facilitated my research when they saw that my project had been approved by the central state in Vientiane. That said, I did find some difficulties in getting appointments to interview state officials when I became ‘familiar’ with local officials. I often found, to my frustration, that appointments were postponed or even cancelled at the last minute.
The status of the interviewer can make ‘elite’ interviewees feel important; for example, to be interviewed by a ‘VIP interviewer’, for instance, a professor from a university or a
‘Farang’ (western) student, has a cachet in the Lao PDR. Being a young female student from Thailand, this did not apply in my case. Possibly as a result, I faced difficulties getting appointments to interview some high-ranking officials because they usually had a tight schedule. Serendipity sometimes played a part, however. For example, in the case of the head of the Luang Namtha PAFO whose schedule was too tight to put my name in his appointment diary, I had the opportunity to have conversations with him during breakfast in his favourite noodle shop. My conversations with him lasted from only 20 minutes to over an hour and the topics that we covered were various: his life experiences, his family, rubber plantations, the provincial government’s policies on poverty alleviation, and so on.
An ability to establish personal connections in the field was also an important channel to gain access to some elites. In Sing district, as a regular customer of one noodle shop run by the Sing district’s deputy governor’s wife, I had several opportunities to have conversations with this senior official over my meals. Moreover, when I had built a good relationship with this lady, I was introduced to and able to have conversations with her father who had been a governor of Sing district and was a member of the communist party at a provincial level.
90 Thus it was not only the letter from Vientiane but the ability to make personal connections in the field that played a significant (and challenging) part in opening-up channels of communication and thus gaining access to ‘elite’ informants22.
In addition to interviewing state officials, I intended to interview traders and rubber investors. But, as noted by Richards (1996: 204), we are not able to interview all those we wish to. While I could manage to interview some traders which allowed me to gain some notion of their roles and relations, I had very limited opportunities to conduct in-depth interviews with rubber investors. Investors from China usually stayed in the Lao PDR only during the planting seasons. When they were in the Lao PDR, they tended to stay on their distant plantations and they were extremely busy preparing for rubber planting or taking care of their plantations. The only possible place I could meet Chinese investors was at Chinese restaurants in town where they went for dinner. However, the language barrier became an insurmountable obstacle as I could not speak Chinese and most of the Han Chinese investors could not speak Lao. While I could have found a Chinese interpreter, it was not practical to hire an interpreter while I was unsure if I might meet Chinese investors who would allow me to interview them. Thus, I only managed to interview Tai Lue–Chinese investors from Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan province as their language shares roots with and similarity to my Thai. I had the chance to have short conversations with several Tai Lue-Chinese investors but I could have long conversations with only three. I also managed to interview a Tai Lue-Chinese who worked as one of the leaders of a management team of a Chinese rubber company. In addition to Chinese investors, I also managed to arrange interviews with two local investors. One investor had provided rubber seedlings for upland communities in Long district under informal deals.
The second had set up rubber plantations under a form of a joint venture management with a Chinese investor. Though I had limited opportunities to conduct in-depth interviews with investors, and a ‘gap’ was my inability to interview Chinese investors, I do not regard this as compromising the reliability of my research and its findings as my project’s focus is at the micro level – namely, villagers’ perspectives.
While I was allowed to conduct in-depth interviews with local officials, this does not imply that I could always gain the insightful data I wished to collect. Both the state officials and
22 I use ‘interview’ when I refer to information I obtained from formal interviews. For informal conversations, such as conversations with senior officials at a noodle shop, I refer to my research diary.
91 business people were friendly during the interviews. But some of my questions were not directly answered; instead, the interviews were turned around. This was a confirmation of what is noted by Richards (1996: 201), that elite interviewees have the power to control the information that I was attempting to discover and explore. Both Chinese and local investors, though I always assured them that I was interviewing them in connection with an academic project and any information would never be passed to the Lao authorities, remained worried that there might be some negative impacts on them or their investment (such as being taxed at a higher rate). Lao officials at the local level, especially at the district level, were similarly worried about the implications for them if state authorities at a higher level were dissatisfied with the findings of my research project. This is not to mention my identity as a student from Thailand - a country which has never been socialist and is not always a good neighbour of the Lao PDR. This fact also no doubt affected the response of my interviewees working in the Lao bureaucratic system (Lee-Treweek and Linkogle 2000:
3). Finally, with regard to the process of elite interviewing, it is important to note the role of time and growing familiarity. At the beginning of my fieldwork, some officials were very careful in discussing certain topics (such as the impact of rubber plantations) with me. But as the months passed, these officials became more relaxed and open-minded, as our relationship changed. While the establishment of a friendship provided me with the chance to access some information that I might not otherwise have been able to obtain, it created
3). Finally, with regard to the process of elite interviewing, it is important to note the role of time and growing familiarity. At the beginning of my fieldwork, some officials were very careful in discussing certain topics (such as the impact of rubber plantations) with me. But as the months passed, these officials became more relaxed and open-minded, as our relationship changed. While the establishment of a friendship provided me with the chance to access some information that I might not otherwise have been able to obtain, it created