Contexto de la Organización

As previously stated, in early adolescence young people begin to develop close relationships outside of the family unit and the role of educators begins to take on a more important role in their lives (Martin & Rabie, 2011). It is important to explore whether educators are role models for learners in schools and whether the learners can relate to their educators on a personal level. This would increase the effect of the teachings in the LO curriculum as well as the probability that they would be internalised by learners. An evaluation of the LO programme in Gauteng schools revealed that the lack of openness and trust between educators and learners was a major obstacle to the implementation of the programme (Fonner et al., 2014). Fonner et al. (2014) established that many educators in the schools were reluctant to become involved in delivering the programme because they did not feel that the quality of their relationships with learners would enable them to discuss sensitive issues with them. In contrast, positive learner-educator relationships that enable learners to feel supported and cared for, can produce a variety of positive outcomes amongst learners (Martin & Rabie, 2011). This includes increased academic motivation, higher levels of interest and enjoyment in school work, an increased sense of social cohesion and greater expectancies for success in the classroom (Goodenow, 1993; van Uden, Ritzen & Pieters, 2014). Within the classroom environment, positive relationships and interactions between learners and a climate of mutual respect between learners and their educator have been shown to enhance learners’ motivation and engagement in sexuality education lessons (Ruzek et al., 2016). A study by Adams-Tucker et al. (2016), indicated that long-term relationships with LO educators supported the learners’ preference for LO educators. Educator gossip, punitive approaches and discomfort with sensitive subjects discouraged learners from confiding in educators concerning these issues (Monahan et al., 2010).

2.6.8. Pedagogy

In order to have the maximum impact on learners’ sexual behaviour, it is essential to implement the best practices that have been found to have worked for international schools into the sexuality education programmes of South African schools (Kirby et al., 2011; Kirby, 2002;

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Matshoba & Rooth, 2014). The manner in which sexuality lessons are presented and delivered plays a large role in the internalisation of safe sexual behaviours by learners. It has been established that sexuality education in schools is often not taught well internationally or nationally (Adams- Tucker et al., 2016; Martin & Rabie, 2011). However, sexuality education within the school’s curriculum, according to the New Schools White Paper in the DoE (2011 as cited in Martin & Rabie, (2011), recognises the need for young people to receive high-quality sexuality education in order for them to make informed decisions regarding engagement in sexual and other risky behaviour. Therefore, SA can look to the best international practices of pedagogy which have been successful in sexuality education programmes, for the way forward in terms of the implementation of sexuality education (Sulkowski et al., 2014). The following are best practice pedagogies for sexuality education in schools:

While it has been documented that practicing sex during teenage years is usually presented as a taboo by educators in sexuality-education classes internationally (with SA being no exception), this may have the reverse effect of creating an excitement and thrill associated with exploring the prohibited (Adams-Tucker et al., 2016; Matshoba & Rooth, 2014). However, research has established that if sex is presented to learners as a healthy and normal part of living, it reduces the thrill associated with the prohibited exploration and the resultant experimentation (Kirby et al., 2011). Learners are free to make their own choices regarding when to have their first sexual experiences without the notion that this is taboo, and they are more enabled to make their own decisions regarding safe sexual behaviours and to exercise their rights to practise safe sex (Verma, 2016).

Further best practices for pedagogy of sexuality education programmes consists of practical, participatory and varied methodologies of imparting information such as worksheets, textbooks, group-work, oral presentations, homework assignments, role plays etc. (Kirby et al., 2011; Mathews et al., 2006; Mertler, 2017; World Bank, 2003). With specific respect to HIV- prevention, studies have shown that interventions targeting adolescents are more effective if they target sexually-inexperienced youth and use fewer bio-medical approaches (Mertler, 2017). Most often, bio-medical topics and barrier methods of HIV/STI and teenage-pregnancy prevention appear to be presented without any effort being made to promote an understanding of relationships, respect for the other, and rights (Adams-Tucker et al., 2016; Francis, 2010; Francis, 2013; Verma,

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2016). This has led to a tendency to equate prevention with the proper use of condoms and a concentration on the bio-medical/mechanistic aspects of sexuality (Adams-Tucker et al., 2016; Francis, 2010). A bio-medical or mechanistic approach to pedagogy of sexuality education has been indicated as failing to interest and challenge learners and, therefore, not having the desired outcomes of sexuality education programmes (Ahmed, 2009, Earls, 2008).

Educators’ decisions and willingness to implement HIV and sexuality-education are influenced by a myriad of factors including their beliefs concerning the importance and value of HIV and sexuality education, self-efficacy, teaching experience in HIV education, sense of responsibility and adequate pre-service and in-service training (Ahmed, 2009; DoE, 2000b). Additional educator characteristics such as knowledge of HIV, comfort in teaching sensitive subject matter, personal responsibility and perceptions of stability and controllability of risk factors or behaviour are also correlated with their willingness and decision to implement HIV and AIDS- education within schools (Ahmed, 2009; Helleve et al., 2009; Helleve, Flisher, Onya, Mũkoma & Klepp, 2011; Mathews et al., 2006;). Some of these characteristics have even been proposed as screening criteria in the selection of educators to teach HIV and AIDS-education in South African school (Mathews et al., 2006). Factors pertaining to the interpersonal and school level such as a school HIV and AIDS policy, collegial support in delivering HIV and sex-education, school climate and good school-community relations are further influential factors for educator- willingness to teach sexuality education (Helleve et al., 2009; Helleve et al., 2011; Mathews et al., 2006). Recent studies into educators’ roles in implementing life skills and HIV and sex-education have taken cognisance of the role of the surrounding school context (Mathews et al., 2006). From their findings amongst a sample of 324 educators in Cape Town, South Africa, Mathews et al., (2006, p.395) have argued that:

In efforts to enhance educators’ implementation of HIV and AIDS education, there is a need to focus on the broad social development programmes which improve school functioning and the quality of relationships between learners, caregivers, educators and community members.

School-based Life Skills require educators who are highly skilled and motivated and who possess an in-depth understanding of the issues they teach (Boler & Aggleton, 2005). Equally important as knowledge of the content, is having the required pre-service and in-service training

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and skills to effectively teach and engage with learners concerning the LO material and related issues that may emerge in classroom lessons (Mertler, 2017; Mathews et al., 2006). Research suggests that educators lack adequate knowledge and the necessary skills to educate learners about HIV and AIDS and sexuality (Adams-Tucker et al., 2016; Matshoba & Rooth, 2014). It is currently being assumed that it is possible for educators to be able to teach a radically different curriculum in Life Skills with minimal in-service training (Adams-Tucker et al., 2016; Chapman & Werner- Wilson, 2008). LO pre-service and in-service educator training is essential since the LO programme has the dual aim of increasing learners’ knowledge and assisting them to acquire skills. Therefore, the teaching of LO requires a teaching approach that is different from the normal didactic teaching styles normally used by educators (DoE, 2011c). Boler and Aggleton (2005) explain that expecting educators to adapt to a different type of teaching, whilst remaining within the confines of the classroom, presents a challenge. This is due to LO training being intended to be participatory, responsive, raising questions rather than providing clear-cut answers and challenging learners to find new ways of relating to each other and to the broader society (Department of Basic Education, 2015). As a result, the required method of teaching LO may be unfamiliar to educators as teaching in most classrooms is didactic, non-participatory, inflexible and assessment-driven (DoE, 2000b). In turn, this may be increasingly challenging given that many South African schools are appointing educators, who do not teach LO as a primary subject, into LO educator roles (Adams-Tucker et al., 2016; Matshoba & Rooth, 2014; Shisana et al., 2009). These educators may, therefore, lack the training and experience for the teaching of skills necessary in these roles (Mcgraw et al., 2008).

It is important to note that the role of educators when teaching LO is often not as clear as compared to teaching other subjects, given the expectations of learner-behaviour change (Verma, 2016). Consequently, educators may question their role in this form of education (Bhana et al., 2005). The manner in which educators conceptualise their role and the role of learners in the school environment has been shown to influence their delivery of HIV and AIDS and sexuality education (Matshoba & Rooth, 2014). It also influences the decisions they make about the information and topics learners should or should not be informed about (Bhana et al., 2005; Fonner et al., 2014; Helleve et al., 2009;). Educators have also reported feeling that their role is ambiguous due to having "anxiety concerns" and "resistance concerns” (Verma, 2016, p.23). Anxiety concerns expressed, include fear of violating taboos, giving caregivers reasons for taking offence as well as

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being accused of encouraging promiscuity and loose moral behaviours in the young (Verma, 2016). Resistance concerns relate to doubts regarding whether sexuality education, the formation of appropriate sexual attitudes and the transmission of very specific behavioural guidelines really belong to their work as educators, when educator training and orientation are directed towards essentially academic areas (Shisana, Peltzer, Zungu-Dirwayi & Louw, 2005; Verma, 2016).

Research has indicated that educators teaching HIV and AIDS-education at schools are generally less confident in their ability to implement learner-centred teaching strategies such as role play, creative tasks and group discussions, which are important for learner acquisition of skills (Helleve et al., 2011; Zuma et al., 2016). South African educators reported lower levels of confidence with respect to teaching in general, than counterparts from other countries (Helleve et al., 2009). In response to this, Helleve et al. (2011) and Zuma et al. (2016) argued that many South African educators lack the emotional resources required to deal with these issues. Helleve et al., (2009) highlighted the importance of the attribution of learner education and influence on educators’ confidence in their own ability to teach lessons on HIV and AIDS and sexuality as well as educators’ confidence in their ability to influence learners’ behaviour. The study also emphasised the importance of addressing educators’ confidence in teaching lessons on HIV and AIDS and sexuality because they may perceive the content as controversial to their own values, or the values and norms of the learners, or the local community. Confidence in teaching has been shown to be significantly associated with the number of years in teaching about HIV and AIDS and sexuality, formal training in these subjects, experience in discussing the topics with others, school policy and priority given to teaching about HIV and AIDS and sexuality at school as well as self-reported successful implementation of school-based programmes (Francis, 2010). According to Helleve et al. (2009), educators were reported to lack confidence when teaching HIV and AIDS and sexuality in South African urban and rural schools. Further strengthening of their confidence levels could, therefore, be an important measure for improving the implementation of such programmes.

The use of rapport in the classroom is beneficial to the internalisation of sexuality education messages in learners (Gaurdino & Fullerton, 2010). Finding different leaders amongst learners within each class is beneficial to the building of educator-class rapport (Ruzek et al., 2016). Every set of learners will have two types of unofficial leaders within the group: The highly-academic

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performers and the highly-sociable learners. If used wisely, these types of leaders could assist in the teaching of LO (Kirby et al., 2011; Gaurdino & Fullerton 2010; Shochet & Smith, 2014). The use of both types in peer-led lessons or positioning them near weaker learners, demonstrates educator care of all learners as it recognises strong learners and indicates care for weaker ones (Ruzek et al., 2016). Educators may then use this opportunity to further assist weaker learners (Ruzek et al., 2016). Social learners, in particular, are useful to set focus and discipline standards in the classroom (Fonner et al., 2014). These learners may be more likely to be more disruptive than their peers if not recognised (Ehrhardt, 2007). Their social ability to lead is useful in assisting focus in the classroom if they are identified and used as an asset since their peers are likely to follow their behaviour (Fonner et al., 2014; Gaurdino & Fullerton 2010; Shochet & Smith, 2014). It is imperative that the educator mentors learners in a manner which promotes positive interactions with themselves and their classmates in order to foster the learning of the social skills necessary to change attitudes towards risky-sexual behaviour, in order to ultimately enable positive behaviour-changes to take place. This communal-learning methodology will promote learning as a journey for individuals, which is more likely to assist learners to observe how their actions and behaviour affects others (Ehrhardt, 2007; Schafer & Sweeney, 2012). These learners are more likely to relate communal learning to the impact of their actions and behaviour outside of the classroom and school, than learners taught in a more individualistic manner (Adams-Tucker et al., 2016; Francis, 2010; Fonner et al., 2014).