Contra la representación, el otro lado del espejo.

Expectations are subjective predictions about the future which originate from and affect people’s beliefs, knowledge and experience (Olsen, Roese and Zanna, 1996). According to Adeniji-Neill (2012, p.3):

Parental expectations are various beliefs, assumptions, and aspirations that relate to, but are not limited to, the relationship of students to faculty, curriculum, discipline, culture, acculturation, and family composition as they contribute to children’s school achievement.

Reviewing the work of various writers Adeniji-Neill concludes that expectations normally motivated parents to encourage their children to be successful in school. Russell (2003) suggests that parents develop expectations about their children’s education through their own experiences or through information provided by the school, media and other parents. Furthermore, ‘‘expectations help a person to make behavioural choices because people behave differently during interaction according to their expectations of the other person’’ (p.147). This means that PE of their children in school originates from personal experiences or information and may result in their motivation of their children towards higher achievement. Ultimately, PE may impact on their involvement in their children’s education.

Some studies have explored PE of the school and teachers. They have revealed that parents expect their children to progress academically and be happy in school, be given homework and have fair discipline. Also, they expect quality teaching and to be given information (Foot et al., 2000; Tartar and Horenczyk, 2000; Crozier, 1999; West et al., 1998).

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2006) reported that American parents expect schools to provide conducive learning environments and children will perfect the basic skills of reading, writing and mathematics. Citing the Danish Ministry of Education’s survey (2000 and 2003), OECD (2006) reported that parents valued social values and personal skills more than academic ones. The five most important skills identified by Danish parents were:

 Reading;  Writing;  Social skills;

 Confidence in one’s own potential; and  Ability to make decisions.

Additionally, Danish parents would want ‘‘greater focus on academic performance and individualised teaching’’ (p.41), so as to meet the needs of diverse learners. In Japan, parents wanted an ‘‘education that cultivates humanity and does not over emphasise achievement scores’’ (OECD, 2006 p.41). Also, the parents said they wanted to send their children to schools which:

 Train children to acquire basic skills through a rich natural living experience;  Have a partnership between home, school and community;

 Have lots of people caring for children;

 Cater for different interests and abilities of children;

 Provide opportunities for children to meet different types of teachers and peer group;

 Have a clear educational philosophy;  Provide a well-balanced education;

 Have high educational standards and quality learning environments; and  Educate the talented to global standards. (OECD, 2006. pp.41-42)

In England parents expect that their children will attain good academic results and will remain in school beyond the age of 16 years (OECD, 2006; Batterham, 2003). Batterham (2003) further reported that three quarters of the 3,137 parents interviewed expected their child to progress higher than secondary school education.

In the Slovak Republic, parents expect schools to develop thinking and problem- solving skills. The parents endorsed the development of key competencies (which were not defined but I assume to be basic skills), communication skills, the use of information and communication technology and the development of interpersonal and personal skills (OECD, 2006).

OECD (2006), reporting on PE of education in Hungary, said that parents mainly expected their children’s education to help them develop student competencies and skills that would ultimately equip them to move on to the next academic level. Additionally, it was to teach children to learn, develop problem solving skills and become honest individuals with high moral standards (OECD, 2006).

Rambiyana and Kok (2002), conducting research in South Africa, postulate that the ultimate aim of both formal and informal education is to prepare children for adult living. Citing Rice (1991), Rambiyana and Kok (2002, p.10) define adulthood as ‘‘the ability of the individual to optimally integrate culture into his/her life, to possess attitudes and behaviour according to society’s expectations’’. Every society tries to

preserve itself through the transmission of its culture to its young ones and schooling is one of the means by which this is done. Since the ultimate aim of education is to prepare children for adult living, it presupposes that parents may expect inclusive schools to do likewise and in the process transmit the culture of the land to their children.

Rambiyana and Kok (2002) said that parents send their children to school to be employable in the future. Similarly, Wolman et al. (2001) found that parents wished their children to be financially independent in the future. Generally, parents expected the schools to equip their children with skills and knowledge that would make them employable in the future. To be able to do this effectively, the children would have to attain a degree of academic success.

It is the aim of society to have upright citizens. Rambiyana and Kok (2002) suggest that schools are a means through which society can achieve this aim. According to them, schools can do so because children spend a vast amount of time in schools and ‘‘educators are better placed to detect and correct defective citizenship traits’’ (p.11). Since producing good citizens is something society upholds will parents in this study hold this as a priority expectation for their children?

From the above review it can be concluded that although there are differences between countries on PE of education, there are broadly defined key expectations that can be identified and categorised in three groups, namely:

 Academic - for example: learning to read, write, manipulate figures, and progress academically;

 Social - for example: interpersonal skills, including the development of friendships, and communication skills; and

 Cultural - for example: acculturation and acquisition of good citizenship skills.

2.3.1.1 Ghanaian parental expectations of education

Ghanaian parents acknowledge the importance or value of education in contemporary society (Donkor, 2010). Brooke (2009, p.43) reported that 41% of the Ghanaian parents who participated in his study saw primary education ‘‘as the starting point for a protracted educational career or for 'progress', or as a means to securing employment’’. This ‘‘protracted educational career’’ in Ghana comprises compulsory eleven years of universal basic education, (two years kindergarten, six years primary and three years Junior High School), three years of Senior High School and then tertiary education. At the tertiary level, one can attend the

university for a degree or a polytechnic for a diploma or Higher National Diploma or attend a College of Education for a diploma (formerly known as Teachers Training College, and used to award Certificate A 4 Year Post Middle, and Certificate A 3 Year Post Secondary qualifications which are equivalent to a diploma). Tertiary level programmes span between three and four years. Thus, it takes a minimum of 17 years to complete the whole cycle of education in Ghana.

Brooke (2009) also said that 29% of parents in the study perceived primary education as an opportunity to learn to read and write. In addition, 28% of the parents said that it was a combination of the two views mentioned. Furthermore, Brooke suggests that the desire of parents to see their children acquire education and thereby acquire a job might increase their desire for their children to achieve certification.

Although the study participants were just 127 parents from six rural schools in Ghana (and we do not know how they were selected, making it liable to bias), it gives insight to PE of education in Ghana. From this study, it can be concluded that some PE of education would be to equip children with the ability to read, write, get certification and be employable. No study was identified that addressed the issue of PE of IE directly.

Based on the assertion that PE are universal (Adeniji-Neill, 2012), it can be assumed that some of the expectations of Ghanaian parents of education would be to:

 Help their children develop problem solving skills;  Be able to read and write;

 Develop interpersonal skills;  Acquire good citizenship skills;

 Learn and practise the culture of the society;  Develop communication skills; and

 Develop skills in ICT.

As noted, these expectations are only assumptions. Since there is limited literature in this area on Ghana, it is an area worth researching as, expectations according to Russell (2003), underpin our behavioural choices.