Contraindicaciones del Acceso de la Vena Yugular Interna

The following PEs’ leadership roles are delineated, namely, educator, role model, supporter, referral agent and advocacy.

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2.6.3.1 Educator

PEs enact leadership by using communication skills to educate their peers, by providing basic skills and information to facilitate norm forming about healthy living in a formal classroom setup, or informal face to face discussions (DBE, 2011:15). Through inspirational motivation, PEs stimulate enthusiasm and inspire a belief in a common cause, by using different ways to emotionally engage their peers (Smith, 2015:18). PEs take leadership by encouraging ‘critical consciousness’ among peers by allowing an active dialogue, discussion, questioning, critical analyses and comments on personal experiences and accommodation of individuals’ opinions (Campbell & MacPhail, 2002:6-8). Swartz and Moolman (2015:2) state that PEs need to educate their peers in a structured manner over time, utilising participatory techniques on issues that cannot be easily addressed with adults (DBE, 2011:2). Thus, participative leadership is important for PEs as the engage in their educative role.

Research conducted in 13 secondary schools in Tshwane shows that PEs were successful at educating their schoolmates and stimulated discussions about intimate behaviour due to similar experiences with peers, which led peers to open up (Visser, 2007:680). However, in their study in Johannesburg, Campbell and MacPhail (2002:15) found that PEs were stuck with the ‘old-fashioned’ didactic approach to education, by standing in front of the class while their peers would quietly sit and listen. It is imperative to train PEs for their role so that they can be effective.

2.6.3.2 Role Model

“Leading by example” is one mechanism by which a leader may influence his/her followers (Gachter, Nosenzo, Renner & Sefton, 2012:2). As part of their leadership role, PEs get an opportunity to model healthy behaviours to their peers within the PEP. For PEs to be perceived as role models, they have to portray a positive image that appeals to their peers and furthermore positively affect the attitudes and health choices of their followers/peers (O’Brien et al., 2009:204). PEs model the way (Kouzes & Posner, 2008:15). PEs enact idealised influences when they behave appropriately thus setting good examples to their peers and this earns them trust and respect of their peers (Hyman-Shurland, 2016:39).

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PEs can be powerful role models by modelling healthy behaviour for young people who are most likely to adopt behaviour modelled by their peers due to similarity in life experiences (Family Health International 2010:6; Mason-Jones et al., 2011:564; Sithole, 2013:14; Chinyama, 2012:25). Recent experimental research has shown that followers respond strongly to the example set by a leader (Gachter et al., 2009:2). A study conducted by UNICEF (2004) on PE revealed that PEs were shown to be more effective than their teachers in changing attitudes that were related to sexual behaviours and influencing others to change norms (Njovana, 2010:13). In Frantz’s study (2015:4) PEs were excited at the extent of influence they could have by identifying solutions to problems and sharing information with peers which led to peers trusting the PEs and seeing them as role models.

Role modelling alone is not sufficient to change behaviour, it is influenced by the person’s attention and retention levels, and motivation (Myataza, 2009:6; Njovana, 2010:15). Evidence indicates that some students do not perceive PEs as role models. Sithole’s (2013:14) study found a high number of teenage pregnancies amongst the PEs which affected their credibility. It is important that there must be congruency between what PEs say and their actions. Hence, they have to lead by good example. PEs might become role models if they are able to effect idealised influence on their peers thus having a profound effect on their peers (Antonika, 2006:11).

2.6.3.3 Peer Supporter

PEs have to be mindful of their peers’ uniqueness and specific situation in order to provide support without being judgemental (Reina, 2015:4). Hyman-Shurland (2016:40) avers that individual consideration requires PEs to recognise and take care of peers’ needs through support and guidance. Visser (2007:682) posits that the PEs’ role involves being available to peers for informal conversation, guidance and support. PEs must work on building trust with their peers so that they can feel comfortable in opening up to them. Young people are seen as partners in solving other young people’s problems (Visser, 2007:681). Due to the familiarity with the experiences, they can easily relate to one another. However, research indicates that peers do not always trust the PEs and hence they may not confide in them. In a study on the impact of peer education, both the learners and PEs acknowledged that PEs were not regularly approached for advice because of the fear of ‘private’ information becoming general

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knowledge and the subject of gossip (Swartz et al., 2014:38). Appropriate support and training is necessary for PEs (DBE, 2011:11).

2.6.3.4 Referral Agent

PEs are required to display supportive and empowering leadership behaviour that shows concern for their peers (Bligh, 2017:23). As referral agents, PEs identify learners who experience difficulties, which might impact on their school performance and behavioural performance, and refer them for professional support (DBE, 2011:16). PEs share information with their peers and support them in finding relevant information and assistance (Kitala, 2011:13). This role is related to individualised consideration, as PEs take care of the individual needs of their peers (Phong et al., 2018:707). Each peer is thus treated uniquely and offered advice, encouragement and support (Smith, 2015:33). A peer education effectiveness study by Swartz, Deutsch, Makoae, Michel, Harding, Garzouzie, Rozani, Runciman & Van der Heijden (2012:251) revealed how PEs helped their peers by referring them to adults. One such case was of a girl who was a victim of rape and the other case was of a girl who was pregnant and whose boyfriend was pressuring her to have an abortion (Swartz et al., 2012:251). In these two cases PEs played a supportive role and advised the peers to talk to adults they trusted.

PEs experience challenges when they identify and approach peers who are in need of assistance, because peers do not really prefer this intervention from PEs (Swartz et al., 2014:4). PEs fail to establish trusting relationships with peers (Sithole, 2013:17) and lack of trust appears to be the main barrier to using PEs as referral agents (Swartz et al., 2014:47). Peers may be able to trust the PEs if a safe and conducive environment is created.

2.6.3.5 Advocacy

As advocates for change, PEs are expected to raise awareness of available services, inequities, the needs of learners and campaign for resources (DBE & MIET, 2014:8; Deutsch & Swartz, 2002:34). Smith (2015:18) asserts that PEs have agency to intellectually stimulate their peers through problem awareness and problem solving, thought and imagination, values and beliefs and encouraging strategic thinking.

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Furthermore, PEs can create an awareness of human rights which provide a lens for challenging the status quo (Deutsch & Swartz, 2002:34). A key prerequisite for positive change is the development of ‘critical consciousness’ (Freire cited in Campbell & MacPhail, 2002:7-8). Kitala’s (2011:13) study reported on campaigns organised by PEs, one focusing on substance abuse and the other on corporal punishment. Unfortunately, PEs are not always able to create an ideal platform for advocacy. Campbell and MacPhail (2002:14) found that even within PEPs, young men tend to dominate and as a result woman get stuck in inferior, passive roles. Therefore, there is a need for supportive systems that enable PEs and their peers to freely express themselves.