Contrato de Permuta Financiera de Intereses (Swap)

Interviews can be a very effective method of gathering information (Easterby-Smith et al, 2002). However, not all knowledge or information can be recounted or constructed in an interview situation (Mason, 2006). Another favoured method used in CR research is that of participant observation (Ackroyd, 2009). Participant observation was selected as a method of data collection because it offers the opportunity to get closer to the action and the people involved in organisational practices (Watson, 2011). In addition, direct observation of particular situations allows groups of actors to reveal their characteristic ways of behaving (Ackroyd, 2004). Watson (2011:204), a reluctant ethnographer argues there is a need to “investigate the realities of how things work in organisations”, he states:

I have always believed, whether I have liked it or not, that we cannot really learn a lot about what ‘actually happens’ or about ‘how things work’ in

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organizations without doing the intensive type of close-observational or participative research that is central to ethnographic endeavour.

Participant observation can range from the performance of nominal and marginal roles to the performance of native, or insider roles (Junker, 1960, Gold, 1969) and can take the form of overt or covert research, although it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the difference between that of ethnography and participant observation. Bryman (2012) for example positions ethnography as including participant observation and discusses six field roles, the first two of which, covert and overt full membership are more traditionally associated with ethnography the latter categories including those below with participant observation:

 A participating observer, participates in the group’s core activities, but does not become a full member of the group

 Partially participating observer is the same as a participating observer although observation is not necessarily the main source of data (Bryman, 2012:441-445).

There appear to be similarities amongst all four and six-fold participatory models, however those most pertinent to this study are that of the researcher as employee (Easterby-Smith, 2002) and the participating observer and partially participating observer (Bryman, 2012).

The Researcher as Employee

The role of researcher as employee provided a unique perspective as it provided a prearranged insider role, within the delivering institution rather than one that required negotiation. However, it did raise a number of ethical issues about conducting

152 research within a work environment rather than as a full-time researcher. McAreavey (2008) when writing about her own ethnographic study draws attention to some of the issues she encountered such as overemphasising personal identity and participation whilst marginalising the structural context and academic environment. Other aspects included the impact of social structures and professional and pragmatic research pressures. The following section examines the multiple roles of the researcher from being part of the social world being researched (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995) to that of researcher in the field.

As a lecturer on the FdA in Retailing I participated in the principle activities of the university in designing and then later delivering the Personal and Professional Development Unit (PPD 1) (for a more detailed description see page 113). Once the pilot stage of the programme was complete, I made known my research interests to those managing and overseeing the programme within the academic institution. Thus, I was in the position of being in the field before research commenced, so had what Gummerson (2000:57) refers to as “pre-understanding”. This implies I had understanding of the organisational culture, policies, procedures and politics and therefore knew how to obtain information in the academic institution. Although this level of understanding did not transfer to the case organisation, affiliation afforded some advantages, for example, cooperation from managers when requesting interviews and increased access to students on the programme, ensuring the role assumed was not one of detached insider (McAreavey, 2008). Thus, what essentially began as covert research later transferred to an explicit role within the delivering organisation. This approach offered the maximum flexibility without engendering the ethical problems that may reside in covert research.

153 Many ethnographic researchers strongly value longitudinal studies that include significant periods of observation (Watson, 2011) rather than what Bates (2003) refers to as “jet plane ethnography” where researchers conduct no more than a series of flying visits. After the pilot programme, there were three distinct periods of participant observation from 2009-2012. The first was during the induction of students onto the programme, which took place over a two-day period at the beginning of September. The second period was throughout the delivery of the unit (10-week period from September to December) and the final opportunity was at the assessment centres which were generally held over a five day period each year at the beginning of July (an outline of the assessment centres is provided on page 188)

Changing Roles: The Many Hats of the Researcher

During the assessment centres, a ‘participating as observer role” was more appropriate as I was working alongside managers in the recruitment of new students. The advantages of observation as a participant are numerous and well documented. It enabled me to obtain an accurate picture of the culture of the case organisation and its workings by approaching the research from a local”s point of view (Narayan & Pebley, 2003). This gave access to the interior, seemingly subjective aspects of human existence, and although still an outsider, I was able to observe and experience the meanings and interactions of the people present at the assessment centre, which would otherwise have been unattainable. In addition, it helped develop rapport with key personnel such as head office staff, field and store managers and students who had graduated from the programme and with informants prior to interview, thus easing the interview process (Hamersley and Atkinson, 1995). Finally, it offered a means of triangulating data with interviews and documentary evidence.

154 The relationship between the participant as observer, the people in the field setting, and the larger context of human interaction is one of the key components of participant observation, so it was important to sustain access and maintain relationships with people in the field. The character of field relations can heavily influence the researcher’s ability to collect accurate, truthful information (Jorgensen, 1989). I took on an additional role teaching on an accredited programme to maintain access to the case organisation. The programme was designed for managers within the case organisation to gain accreditation for studying a small number of 20 credit units without having to enrol for the full FdA in Retailing6_{. In addition, I was able to}

spend extended periods of time observing participants in their work environments, when conducting interviews to gain a fuller understanding of how structure and culture impinges their working lives.

Participating in these activities provided a rich and deep understanding of the phenomenon under investigation and heightened my awareness of significant social processes, particularly when combined with interviews and documentary evidence. However, being a privileged researcher (Milburne, 2000) provided some challenges. Taking on the multiple roles of employee, researcher and individual was not always comfortable, especially when moving between the academic institution and case organisation. This was particularly the case when participating at the assessment centres. Although present in a work capacity, the research objectives were to collect data and recruit students to participate in the study, therefore I had to make an

6 _{Selected students on the A level Options programme were invited to attend a two day workshop at the}

University. They were then given access to the e-learning platforms for the units included (PPD1 and Retail Environment) to enable them to complete a work based project. If successful, the students gained accreditation for the 40 Credits studied. In theory, this then entitled them to be fast-tracked through certain units if later admitted onto the programme.

155 informed judgement on what the predominant role should be. At the assessment centres, my work role was that of assessor. I was working alongside other assessors who included, store managers and field personnel including area and group personnel managers. The assessors were responsible for evaluating each candidate’s performance and suitability for the programme during the daylong event, which was comprised of a range of activities including an interview, case scenario, presentation and group exercise. However, as a researcher my interest was to collect information from those running the assessment centre, the assessors and past students invited to talk at the event. As an individual, I was keen to create a good impression whilst representing the Business School and wanted to fit in well with the rest of the assessment team. Successful impression management at these events helped to alleviate some potential conflict (Goffman, 1959) however, the insider-outsider role still on occasion proved challenging. Whilst some fret about taking on dual roles and marginality, others like Van Maanen (2010:231) celebrate it:

One might argue that it is the very marginality of the craft – being on the edge of (at least) two worlds – that makes it valuable to the field of organization and management. Much move in either direction will neutralize its strength.

Many writers stress the importance of reflexivity when undertaking participative observation as the researcher can never be free of culture, discourse or existing theory (Alvesson, 2008). Although realist researchers unlike social constructionists are not required to reflexively deconstruct their own representational practices, they may be “internally reflexive” by critically scrutinizing their behavioural impact on the social settings under investigation and their associated field roles and deployment of

156 particular research protocols (Johnson and Duberley, 2003). Being close to the research phenomena through taking on the role of researcher as employee, can lead to questions of observer bias. Saunders et al (2003: 230) suggest this cannot be avoided, they state “all we can do is be aware of the threat to reliability it poses and seek to

control it”, using multi-methods enabled questions to be raised about the validity of

the findings. Further, it is essential for those conducting participant observations to record what they see, because anything not recorded is lost or wasted (Delamont, 2007). The field notes taken, during this study, provided detailed observations and included my initial thoughts and reflections (Bryman, 2008). When conducting periods of participant observation, I would make jotted notes, inconspicuously during the event or immediately afterwards. These were later written-up as full field notes (thick description of the setting and the actors in it) and analysed along with documentary data received whilst participating in events. Below is an excerpt taken from the field notes:

6th _{July 2009: This morning, following on from the assessor briefing session,}

four members of the assessment team, including myself were discussing the issue of widening access of the FD to non-management students. I raised the point that many students were finding it difficult to gain the support of their store managers and felt that this would exacerbate the issue. The consensus amongst the assessors was that it was the student’s responsibility to ‘win’ the support of their store manager. One store manager commented (strongly) “I

would expect them to knock my door down to get my attention”. Clearly

157 this if selected for the programme, however junior managers in larger stores tended to find their store managers intimidating.