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The trait-and-factor approach to vocational counselling is considered one of the most influential career theories (Watson & Stead, 2013; Zunker, 2012). During the first half of the 20th century, trait-factor theory dominated career counselling and served as the theoretical foundation for various career theories and psychometric career assessment instruments (Crites, 1981; Watson & Stead, 2013; Zunker, 2012). The central contents of this approach remain critical features of contemporary career theories and are indicative of the pre-eminence of trait-factor theory (Watson & Stead, 2013). Fundamentally, this approach suggests that the career decision-making process is based on the matching of an individual’s specific characteristics with the requirements of an occupational environment (Watson & Stead, 2013). A central feature of this theory is the assumption that all individuals have distinctive abilities that can be measured and correlated with the requirements of various occupations (Zunker, 2012). As a result, the importance of individual differences in the career decision-making process has been highlighted by this approach (Crites, 1981).

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2.2.1 The trait-and-factor model

There is consensus that the trait-factor model emerged from the pioneering work of Frank Parsons (1909). Parsons postulated that the successful facilitation of a career choice is the product of (a) the individual, (b) the occupational environment, and (c) the interrelations between the individual and the occupational environment (Crites, 1981; Morgan, 2014). On the individual level, career choices require self-knowledge and a clear understanding of one’s interests, abilities, ambitions and resources (Watson & Stead, 2013). According to Parsons (1909), this knowledge refers to the

trait component of the approach. In terms of the occupational environment, knowledge of the

prerequisites of success, benefits, disadvantages, and opportunities for different career paths are necessary to make an informed career choice (Watson & Stead, 2013). This differential nature of the work environment denotes the factor aspect of the theory (Zunker, 2012). Accordingly, through measuring aptitudes, abilities and personalities, individuals can be assigned to an occupational environment based on their individual differences (Zunker, 2012). Watson and Stead (2013) argue that the quality of the relation between these traits and factors improves the match between the individual and the occupational environment.

Vocational counselling based on the trait-and-factor approach traditionally encompassed three necessary stages (Morgan, 2014). During the first stage, the diagnosis stage, the practitioner elicits important information in relation to the client’s presenting career concerns (Crites, 1981). This information, in conjunction with an evaluation of the client’s background, provides a basis on which the practitioner selects applicable psychometric assessment instruments that would provide clients with valuable information to resolve their career concerns and indecision (Morgan, 2014). Therefore, the second stage of counselling based on trait-factor theory involves the administration and completion of psychometric assessment instruments. In the final stage, the information acquired from individual interviews and psychometric assessments are interpreted and this information is used to provide occupational recommendations (Crites, 1981). The following section presents a more detailed discussion on the aforementioned stages.

2.2.1.1 The diagnosis

The cornerstone of the trait-and-factor approach to vocational counselling is differential diagnosis (Crites, 1981). According to Williamson (1939), this process involves procuring information in relation to the client’s individual strengths and weaknesses and using this information to predict future occupational adjustments. As a result, a diagnosis is employed to select appropriate career-

11 related treatment and make future recommendations (Crites, 1981; Morgan, 2014). To assist in the diagnosis of career-related concerns, Williamson (1939) proposed and defined four supporting categories of career problems clients may experience, namely (1) no career choice, (2) uncertain career choice, (3) unwise career choice, and (4) discrepancy between interests and aptitudes.

Firstly, individuals experience the crisis of no career choice when they are unable to select a specific career path or have no awareness of their vocational interests. The second problem,

uncertain career choice, is experienced when individuals have selected an occupation, but are

hesitant regarding their choice. Individuals experience the third crisis of unwise choice when there is a lack of agreement between the client’s interests, capabilities or aptitudes and the requirements of an occupational environment. However, this category usually denotes a career choice for which the individual has deficient aptitude (Crites, 1981). The final problem, discrepancy between

interests and aptitudes, refers to incongruence between a client’s occupational interests, aptitude,

abilities and personality (Williamson, 1939). Accordingly, based on the problem presented by the client, the practitioner will select an appropriate approach to career counselling.

Crites (1981), however, critiqued Williamson’s (1939) approach to diagnosis and asserted that too much confidence is placed on practitioners’ ability to identify and classify the client’s career concerns. Furthermore, this approach is unreliable, the four categories are not mutually exclusive and the system of diagnosis is not exhaustive (Crites, 1981). To address these shortcomings, Crites (1969, 1981) formulated a diagnostic system which emphasised congruence between the client’s abilities, interest and career choices. Accordingly, three alternative categories related to the client’s presenting career concerns were proposed, namely problems of adjustment, problems with career indecision and problems with unrealism (Crites, 1969; Morgan, 2014).

Crites (1969) argued that, when clients selected an occupation congruent with their interests and ability, they are considered to be vocationally well adjusted. On the other hand, clients are considered vocationally maladjusted when there is incongruence between their aptitude and interests. The second category, problems of career indecision, was divided into three subsections (Morgan, 2014). Firstly, clients experienced multipotential indecision when they had multiple career opportunities congruent with their interests and abilities. Secondly, clients were career

undecided when they had no career aspirations and struggled to select a career path. Finally, clients

were uninterested in careers when they have the necessary aptitude for an occupation, but there is no agreement with their interests (Crites, 1969; Morgan, 2014). The final category, problems of

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unrealism, arose when clients selected occupations for which they do not have sufficient aptitude,

compromised on an occupation below their ability, or selected an occupation they were pressured into that was incongruent with their interests (Crites, 1969; Morgan, 2014).

According to Zunker (2012), the process of diagnosis played an integral role in the trait-and- factor approach to career counselling. However, the diagnosis was considered a necessary first step of this approach and was used in conjunction with psychometric instruments to assess the client’s career concerns (Watson & Stead, 2013; Zunker, 2012). The use of psychometric assessment instruments is presented in the next subsection.

2.2.1.2 Psychometric assessment in the trait-and-factor approach

Through the initial process of diagnosis, the practitioner elucidates pertinent information related to the client’s career concerns, which formed the foundation on which to select appropriate psychometric assessments (Zunker, 2012). The practitioner selects a variety of psychometric instruments to measure the client’s career interests and values, personality characteristics and aptitude (de Bruin & de Bruin, 2013b; Watson & Stead, 2013). Subsequent to the administration of these assessment instruments, the practitioner scores and interprets the client’s results (Morgan, 2014). In conjunction with the information garnered from the individual interview (for example, contextual influences or previous work experience), the counsellor provides the client with possible solutions to their career related problems (Williamson, 1939; Zunker, 2012). These solutions are provided in the form of recommendations, which are discussed below.

2.2.1.3 Recommendations

Crites (1981) avers that counsellors rely on their expertise to interpret psychometric test results in order to make future recommendations. Occupational recommendations, according to trait-factor theory, were traditionally provided in three ways, namely direct advising, persuasion and explanation (Crites, 1981).

During the process of direct advising, the counsellor provided the client with his or her opinion regarding the most ideal choice or action to be made and followed by the client. However, Williamson (1939) advised to use this method differentially, depending on the client’s problem and personality. Persuasion involved a process whereby the counsellor arranges the information in a logical and reasonable manner in which the client will be able to anticipate the outcomes and consequences of alternative career choices. Rather than dominating the client’s decision, the counsellor persuades the client to circumvent future problems. Finally, the process of explanation

13 involved a concomitant exploration of the information gathered during the interviews and psychometric testing, interpreting the meaning attached to this information and exploring their implications for the client’s occupational choice (Crites, 1981; Williamson, 1939). According to Zunker (2012), recommendations provide clients with possible solutions to their career related concerns and enable them to explore these solutions in the reality of the world of work.

2.2.1.4 Critique against the trait-and-factor approach

The trait-and-factor approach has received persistent criticism over the past half century and decreased in popularity, primarily due to its reductionist approach to career counselling (Crites, 1981; Watson & Stead, 2013). Zunker (2012) asserts that the scope of the trait-factor approach is too narrow to be considered a dominant career theory. A key critique of this approach is its equivalence to the medical model, where too much emphasis is placed on the practitioner’s expertise and ability to diagnose the client’s career problems and provide a prognosis for future occupational adjustments (Crites, 1981). Crites (1981) also argues that trait-and-factor career counselling is primarily atheoretical, since the focus tends to be on empirical observations and data collection.

Furthermore, certain assumptions of the trait-and-factor approach to career counselling have raised specific concerns (Zunker, 2012). Firstly, it assumes that the career decision-making process is universally satisfying; that each individual has a single career goal and choice and that there is an occupational choice for every individual (Watson & Stead, 2013; Zunker, 2012). Secondly, this approach assumes that career decision-making is based on measured abilities, which implies that psychometric instruments are sufficiently reliable and constant over time (Watson & Stead, 2013; Zunker, 2012). These assumptions have major restrictive influences on the factors that can be considered influential in the career counselling process. Rounds and Tracey (1990) have counter- argued that the critique against the trait-factor approach has failed to consider its progression and evolution throughout the 20th _{century. However, even the models developed from this progression}

have received persistent criticism (Watson & Stead, 2013). Moreover, the viability of the trait- and-factor approach has declined in contemporary career psychology, since a more client-centred approach has been employed, where the client is considered to be the expert of his/her own life and it is the role of the counsellor to facilitate career decision-making and solutions, rather than adopting a prescriptive approach (Maree, 2010b).

14 Despite the criticism against the trait-and-factor approach, it has provided a foundation for the development of several other career theories and remains the cornerstone of most developmental career theories (Brown, 2002; Watson & Stead, 2013). Zunker (2012) asserts that the development of career assessment instruments and the improvement of occupational information are closely related to the influence of the trait-and-factor approach. Furthermore, this approach highlighted the practicality of standardised assessments and occupational analyses, which continue to be employed in contemporary career counselling practices (Zunker, 2012).