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A colour term’s meanings can be shown through a network of senses. The idea of a

network involves a category centre (etymological prototype) and various senses which are linked to the central category. These senses develop mostly through metonymy and metaphor, with metonymy even more ubiquitous and basic than metaphor: as Niemeier (1998:120) observes, ‘[m]etonymies can help to disambiguate or even explain intercultural differences’. It is hypothesized that, to some extent, different languages concentrate on different salient aspects of the world; therefore the networks of meanings for different languages, in the case of this research, Polish and English, might differ in some aspects.

Up until now there have been a few studies looking at English green and Polish zielony outside colour charts, and my research contributes to what has already been done in these areas. The aim of this section is to present the results of such studies which are the foundation for my own research.

As discussed in section 2.1.3, Wierzbicka (1990:99) argues that:

color concepts are anchored in certain “universals of human experience”, and [...] these universals can be identified, roughly speaking, as day and night, fire, the sun, vegetation, the sky, and the ground.

She argues that in many languages, the words for green are etymologically related to vegetation (ibid.:117). As far as English green is concerned, she suggests the following formula:

X is green

in some places things grow out of the ground

when one sees things like X one can think of things of this kind

She argues that the part ‘things growing out of the ground’ is valid for many languages, not only for English green but for Polish zielony too, and for languages ‘in which this word does not have exact semantic equivalents’ such as Welsh (ibid.:117). She argues that the difference between Welsh gwyrdd and Hanunóo latuy is wetness in the former and juiciness in the latter (ibid.:119). Wierzbicka stresses that it is prototypes that are essential in the investigation of the meaning of colour terms, as in order to understand what words such as latuy mean, one needs to understand their prototypes (Wierzbicka, 1990:119). This shows that green does not have the same meaning as gwyrdd or latuy, but is more closely related to Polish zielony.

Niemeier (1998) analyses the meanings of the English colour terms red, green, blue and

yellow. Her examples come from the British National Corpus, the Collins Cobuild CD-

Rom on collocations, Roget’s Thesaurus and various English dictionaries. As far as green is concerned, at the centre of the category she puts green referring to ‘naturally green items such as green plants, green grass, or green leaves’ (Niemeier, 1998:132), from which metonymic extensions develop. She argues that the most productive of all the extensions are the meanings relating to nature. She discusses briefly each of the established categories and explains some of the meanings of green in the network. She argues that whereas some of the senses of ‘green’ (such as numbers 2-4) are also found in other Western languages such as German or French, some are specific to ‘the Anglo-British world’, which appears to be Niemeier’s way of referring to British English (numbers 5-7). As she argues ‘[i]n general, the concept “green” seems to be relatively productive in the Anglo-British world, but less so in the wider context of the Western world where the ecological aspect is all- overpowering’ (Niemeier 1998:133). Niemeier’s (1998:134) network of meanings is composed of:

1. (Centre- Universal meaning) Colour of naturally green entities, e.g. plants, leaves, grass 2. (develops from 1) Colour of nature/pastoral life, e.g. green belt, green thumb

3. (develops from 1 and 2) Colour of ecology, e.g. green party, green ideas 4. (develops from 1) Colour of permission, e.g. green light

5a. (develops from 1) Colour of freshness/newness, e.g. green fish, green ceramics 5b. (develops from 1 and 5a) Colour of immaturity, e.g. green youth, green ideas 6. (develops from 1) Colour of emotions, e.g. green with envy, green with fear 7. (develops from 1) Colour of salient aspect, e.g. green card, greenmail

Figure 3-1: Niemeier’s (1998:134) network of green:

Niemeier (1998:132) argues that expressions such as green politics or green guidelines represent double metonymy as green stands first for nature and then for the kind of politics that supports these aims. She argues that all the meanings presented in the networks are motivated by different aspects of western culture; that is, they are not culture-free, but as the world is constantly changing, the concepts may change over time as well (ibid.:141).

Steinvall (2002:207) provides a metonymic and metaphorical analysis of English basic and non-basic colour terms using the Bank of English. Although he does not present a network of all the senses of green, his work is crucial for two reasons: his type modification theory, which is adopted in this thesis, and the fact that he follows up the idea of the network of meanings of green in relation to the senses related to environment and ecology. Steinvall’s work on green meaning ‘environmentally friendly’ was discussed in 3.2.1.

As far as the analysis of Polish zielony is concerned, Waszakowa (2000b) presents both metonymic and metaphorical extensions of this BCT, and at the core of the category she places zielony referring to plants and their parts. She argues that senses of zielony develop mostly through metonymy and metaphor, and that some of the metaphors can be considered as metaphtonymies: metaphors based on metonymies (Waszakowa, 2000b:66). Waszakowa divides her radial network into two groups: the first consists of senses directly connected with prototypical green plants, with the prototype at the centre; whereas the second consists of senses relating to the colour of light, with light at the centre.

Group 1: Main radial network:

1. core, prototype: Referring to green plants and their parts, e.g. green grass, green leaves 2. metonymy from 1: Referring to the colour of the whole tree, bush

3.metonymy from 1 and 2: Referring to the land covered with vegetation, e.g. green forest, green meadow

4. metonymy from 3: Referring to Ireland (Green island)

5. metaphor from 3: Referring to frontier crossing (green border)

6. metaphor from 3: In collocations such as green lungs of the city, town, world

7. metaphor from 3 and metonymy from 6: To put out to grass, to send somebody to green grass (meaning to lose one’s job, to be fired)

8. metonymy (narrowing) from 6: Green bus line (special bus lines which take people outside a town or city, to a place with a vast amount of plants)

9. metaphor from 6: Green school (green holiday camp), i.e. one or two weeks during spring or autumn, organized by the school, where the pupils have both leisure time and a few hours of classes every day

10. metonymy from 1: Referring to fruit that are green when ripe, e.g. gooseberry. Also referring to some fixed names such as zielony ogórek (green cucumber). Sometimes such combinations function as type modification

11. metonymy (narrowing) from 1: Referring to unripe fruit and plants, e.g. green banana, green tomato (they have a different colour when ripe)

12. metaphor from 11: Referring to immature people (young and inexperienced) or to people lacking knowledge

13. metonymy (narrowing) from 1: Meaning fresh and juicy, not dry, old or yellow 14. metaphor from 13: Fresh, not processed, e.g. green manure, green skin (leather) 15. metaphor from 14: Lands, where plants used for animal food are grown

16. metaphor from 1: Referring to water, which looks green because of the green plants in it, e.g. seaweed

17. metaphor from 16: Referring to the colour of the whole body or the colour of eyes or hair of creatures such as water elves or mermaids

18. metonymy from 2: Green tree, referring to pinetree, spruce or fir, i.e. referring to natural rather than artificial evergreen tree

19. metaphor from 1: Green planet, meaning the Earth, where green means ‘life’ 20. metaphor from 1: Green car (environmentally friendly car)

21. metaphor from 1: Green season, i.e. spring

22. metaphor from 1 and 21: Zielone Świątki (Whit Sunday, the descent of the Holy Spirit) (Waszakowa, 2000b:65-68 adapted and translated)

All the above meanings are connected with the prototype. Waszakowa distinguishes these meanings from those that refer to colour and therefore are not connected with the prototype. Meanings 24-29 below have their own radial network. This group distinguishes two main meanings referring to colour: a) the colour of a human face when angry, envious, tired or sick; b) the colour of traffic lights. The latter leadsto further metaphorical senses:

23. metaphor: Green (of face) referring to jealousy, fear etc. Green with fear, cold 24. metaphor: Green traffic light meaning ‘permission to go’

25. metonymy (narrowing) from 24: Green wave – several consecutive green traffic lights 26. metaphor from 24: Green light for business, development etc., chance of development, encouragement

27. metaphor from 24: Green passing, green line, e.g. at the airport, for people who have nothing to declare

28. metaphor from 24: Green card, a type of car insurance that is essential when going abroad

29. metaphor from 24: Green card, a document name that refers to the US Permanent Residence Card

The last set of meanings, apart from the two radial networks presented above, refers to senses that do not lead to the development of any new senses (apart from mould) in the Polish language (Waszakowa, 2000b:70):

30. Green referring to green human eyes: indicates the colours of the iris

31. Green referring to living creatures: animals, reptiles, amphibians, birds (their species) and their body parts (eyes, head, legs)

32. Green referring to water in natural reservoirs: lakes, seas, oceans

33. Green referring to sky, light, stars, moon and natural phenomena such as fog 34. Green referring to aliens, green men, UFOs

35. Green referring to natural substances such as patina, mould and natural stones such as emerald, malachite

36. metaphor from 35: Mouldy, not fresh (e.g. green ham)

As far as mould is concerned, it has a negative connotation of decay and decomposition and it therefore leads to metaphorical narrowing when used in reference to food such as meat (number 36).

Waszakowa (2000b:70-71), similarly to Niemeier (1998), concludes that most of the meanings presented above refer to the world of vegetation. She goes on to say that it may be assumed that the prototypical meaning of plants and grass will also be evident in other languages. What differs, however, are metonymic and metaphorical extensions, which will show the differences between languages.

Some other contributions to the study of zielony are Komorowska (2003) and Tokarski (2004). Komorowska (2003) looks at Polish and Russian metaphorical spoken language and considers aspects such as zielony referring to colour, youth, inexperience, disease or envy.

Tokarski (2004) analyses Polish BCTs (including zielony) as used in poetry. He establishes the prototype and argues that in many languages such as Polish, English and German the etymology of green terms goes back to the world of plants. He goes on to discuss various meanings of zielony, together with its connotations and its relation to other colours such as

The latest contribution to the study of colour terms in general and of green and zielony in particular is Gieroń-Czepczor (2011). She presents a synchronic analysis of six primary English and Polish BCTs (black and czarny; white and biały; red and czerwony; green and

zielony; blue and niebieski; yellow and żółty) and provides networks of meanings for each

colour term in each language. The corpora used in her study are the BNC (British National Corpus) for English and PWN Corpus (Polskie Wydawnictwo Naukowe (Polish Scientific Publishers) for Polish (see section 4.2.2.1). As far as green and zielony are concerned, she analyses 1,500 examples in each language and provides the frequency of occurrence of each sense. Gieroń-Czepczor’s (2011:166-167) radial networks of these two languages are composed of the following categories:

(> metonymic mapping; >>, >>>, >>>> further metonymic mapping; => metaphorical mapping)

OF THE COLOUR OF HERBAGE, LEAVES >PLANTS, CROPS, VEGETABLES

>> MADE OF/WITH PLANTS, CROPS, VEGETABLES >> PERTAINING TO AGRICULTURE OR GARDENING >> CHARACTERISED BY ABUNDANCE OF VERDURE

>>> ‘GREEN’ AREAS >>> ‘GREEN’ PERIODS

>>> RELAXING =>RELAXED, CAREFREE

>> HAVING TYPICAL QUALITIES OF FRESH, YOUNG PLANTS >>> RETAINING NATURAL MOISTURE

>>> FLOURISHING, FULL OF VITALITY OR FERTILE > hopeful >>> YOUNG, TENDER

>>>> FRESH, NEW, RECENT >>> UNRIPE, IMMATURE

>>>> UNDERDEVELOPED, RAW => RAW, INEXPERIENCED (person)

>>>> GULLIBLE

>> CONCERNING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES >>> BENEFICIAL TO THE ENVIRONMENT >>> ORGANIC, NON-TOXIC

>>> CAMPAIGNING FOR PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT > WATER (OR OTHER LIQUIDS)

> ANIMALS

> COVERED IN A GREEN SUBSTANCE > MONEY (DOLLARS)

> CLOTHING

>> PEOPLE DRESSED IN GREEN >COMPLEXION (human and non-human)

>> FEARFUL/JEALOUS/SICK

>OF LIGHT >> (GO-AHEAD) SIGNAL >>> PERMISSION

Figure 3-4: Gieroń-Czepczor’s (2011:189) network of English green (bullet points indicate the frequency of a given sense):

Gieroń-Czepczor (2011:185-186) summarizes that most associations of green and zielony are positive, apart from those relating to human physiology. Most extensions develop through metonymy, and those that develop through metaphor are usually pejorative. As far as the similarities between English and Polish are concerned –

[t]he comparison of English and Polish semantic realizations of the underlying conceptual structure reveals striking similarities resulting from the universality of experience at the level of the natural environment and biology. (Gieroń-Czepczor, 2011:186)

Sections 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 have presented research that has been undertaken on green and

zielony up until now. However, these terms have not been fully explored yet. None of the

above studies analysed green and/or zielony diachronically, therefore this thesis offers a diachronic study of the two BCTs. Moreover, although it has been argued that metaphor and metonymy are the two most common mechanisms of semantic change in green and

zielony, none of the studies has offered a detailed discussion of how new senses develop.

Therefore in this thesis the mechanisms and processes of semantic change will be investigated in detail. Although a comparison of green and zielony has already been offered by Gieroń-Czepczor (2011), this thesis will look at both similarities and differences from a new perspective.

My networks of senses of green and zielony will be presented in Chapters 5 and 6 respectively. A discussion of how they were constructed and how they differ from those presented in this section is offered in 4.2.2.3 and 4.2.2.3.1.