Objective one builds on the work of previous studies researching the relationship between policy, infrastructure, and active transport participation. This research uses a more holistic and integrated approach to consider all variables with potential to influence active transport participation. Thus although primarily policy analysis research, a number of variables (including those that form part of a cities context such as weather) will also be considered.
Objective one is addressed in three steps. To address the deficiencies identified surrounding
comparative policy analysis in regards to context (Deleon & Resnick-Terry, 1998, p. 11), the potential influences or ‘swamping factors’ will be considered and compared for each city4. This will identify the similarities and differences between the cities.
Defining all variables acknowledges that a wide range of factors influence behaviour (Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2002). Consequently in addition to context, the full suite of policy measures
(infrastructure, enforcement, fiscal measures etc.) will also be analysed. 4 This is similar to the approached used by Fyhri et al., (2011) outlined in Section 2.2.4).
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A range of variables were distilled from the literature as influencing active transport. It is
hypothesised that additional variables will be identified throughout the research to establish a more complete list. The literature identified the following variables:
x Bicycle Infrastructure – lanes, separated bike tracks x Car Ownership
x Car Parking – Cost and Quantity x Cycle Helmets
x Density
x Perception of Safety Walking and Cycling x Petrol Price
x Price of Cars
x Topography
x Traffic Calming x Trip Length
x Vehicle Registration Tax
x Vulnerable Road User Protection Laws
x Weather
Following the context analysis the policy from Christchurch and Copenhagen will be compiled and compared. The extraction of policy data is inspired by Pucher et al’s 2008 analysis which compared a number of measures including bicycle mode share percentages, levels of car ownership, safety and injury statistics and trip length. Other policy variables will be included as they are identified when analysing the policy documents. The policy findings will be organised by a research matrix (depicted below):
Table 2. The Research Matrix for Policy Extraction
Relevant Liter atur e Sour ce Policy
Measure Rule/Policy & Year
Form (GXFDWLRQ(QIRUFHPHQW (QJLQHHULQJ (QFRXUDJHPHQW 9ROXQWDU\ %XGJHW'HFLVLRQ 6WXG\)XUWKHU5HVHDUFK $VSLUDWLRQ Additional Information on the policy
measure Relevant Infor
m ation Outputs/ Implemented Outcomes 0HDVXUHPHQWRI WKH3ROLF\ $QDO\VLV 37
3.3.1
Information Extracted for the Matrix
The research matrix enables not just the policies in each city to be recorded, but accompanying detail to assist the comparison.
The column ‘Relevant Literature Source’ details information on where the policy measure was first identified– whether it was informed from the literature review, or arose when analysing the policy documents.
In the ‘Form column’, there is scope to identify the different policy form. The categories are summarised below:
• Education
This involves policies that work to educate the public to transform behaviour through awareness. An example is road safety advertisements.
• Enforcement
This includes policies enforceable by rules that have consequences when not followed. Examples include taxes and fees.
• Engineering
Engineering policies are defined as infrastructure projects. Examples include the creation of a cycle pathway or the installation of a traffic light system.
• Encouragement/Voluntary
‘Encouragement’ describes a policy that doesn’t do anything without relying on ‘goodwill’. An example would be to offer “support” to a programme with no clear economic or resource support specified.
• Budget Decision/Study/Further Research
This policy form includes policies that indicate a commitment to find out more information, to research an issue, or to allocate funding.
• Aspiration
An aspiration policy sets out a vision for achievement, but does not articulate how that vision will be realised. Aspiration policies tend to be in high level strategic documents. The column ‘Additional Information’ allows for information relevant to the policy measure to be recorded. This may be useful in comparing the policies. A column is also provided to record relevant information on the policy measure in general and historic information.
Lastly, the matrix contains columns to record the outputs and outcomes of the policy measures. An example of an output would be that five intersection crossings have been modified since the policy measure was put in place, whilst the outcome column would record whether the modification of the intersections resulted in less accidents, and whether there was a change in the number of
pedestrians and cyclists using the intersections. This is best described by Mills-Scofield (2012) when she writes that “outcomes are the difference made by the outputs: better traffic flow, shorter travel times, and fewer accidents” (Mills-Scofield, 2012).
The final column ensures this research is outcomes, not outputs, focused. Thus, regardless of how many people like the idea of active transport, support active transport investment, or the amount of policy documents mentioning ‘cycling’ or ‘walking’, the research will always be related back to the outcome of active transport participation.
3.3.2
Data Sources
A range of data sources will inform the policy matrices on Copenhagen and Christchurch. The main sources are identified below, whilst a full list is found in Appendix D.
Copenhagen Sources
• Cycle Policy 2002-2012, City of Copenhagen
• Bicycle Accounts – Copenhagen City of Cyclists Biannual Bicycle Account (2002-2012)
• Traffic and Environment Plan 2004, City of Copenhagen
• Traffic Safety Plan 2007-2012, City of Copenhagen
• Sustainable Transport – Better Transport (2008), The Danish Government
• Good, Better, Best: The City of Copenhagen’s Bicycling Strategy 2011-2025, City of Copenhagen
• The Danish Transport System: Facts and Figures (2012), Ministry of Transport
Christchurch Sources
• Pedestrian Strategy for Christchurch City "A Step in the Right Direction" (2001), Christchurch City Council.
• Christchurch Cycling Strategy (2004), Christchurch City Council.
• Christchurch City Plan (2005), Christchurch City Council.
• Getting there - on foot, by cycle: A strategy to advance walking and cycling in New Zealand Transport (2005), Ministry of Transport.
• Christchurch Road Safety Strategy 2006, Christchurch City Council.
• 2020 Safer Journeys: New Zealand's Road Safety Strategy 2010-2020, Ministry of Transport.
• Canterbury Regional Land Transport Strategy 2012-2042, Canterbury Regional Transport Committee.
• Christchurch Transport Strategic Plan 2012-2042: Keep Christchurch Moving Forward by providing transport choices to connect people and places (2012), Christchurch City Council.
• An Accessible City - Christchurch Central Recovery Plan: Replacement transport chapter - October 2013. (2013), Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority.
• Christchurch Cycle Design Guidelines 2013, Christchurch City council.
3.3.3
Categorising the Variables
After the policy extraction has been undertaken, the next step will be to distil all policy measures in the policy extraction matrices, and all variables identified in the systematic analysis of context. This will identify all variables and drivers with potential to influence the dependent variable of active transport participation. The variables will be categorised as follows.
• Sociological and Historical Variables - those variables that work to change behaviour and influence lifestyle. These include marketing and car ownership levels which impact context and culture.
• Economic factors - those variables which impact the affordability of transport options and consequently include pricing, and taxation.
• Transport Infrastructure - all variables relating to infrastructure such as bicycle lanes and car parking. This category is generally characterised by physical changes to the landscape in which active transport occurs.
• Geographical factors - variables and factors relating to the geography and environment of an urban area in which active transport takes place. This includes natural geographical features such as weather and topography, as well as urban factors such as density.
• An implementation factors category is included for those factors that relate to the implementation of policies.