The role of normative behaviour in social regulation is repeatedly emphasised by Durkheim. As previously noted, he contends that challenges to normative behaviour are typically associated with dramatic changes within a given society, changes that cause the norms relating to social regulation to be displaced or lost. Social etiquette, morality and values based on traditional norms of social interaction may be lost in the world of social media. Without proper regulation, such etiquette, morality and values are subject to the individual’s composition. The social disharmony that results from such challenges to previously accepted norms can produce a social state that Durkheim refers to as ‘anomie’ and which he describes as a lack of social regulation, increased individualism and a greater prevalence of social deviancy. Clearly, the greater the social changes the greater the resulting state of ‘anomie’. The next section looks at Durkheim’s theory on suicide and its related links to social behaviour
2.10.4 Suicide
In his book ‘Suicide’ (1897), Durkheim details the consequences of anomic breakdown in society - social and moral deviancy, greater rates of crime and an increase in the rate of suicide. His sociological perspective on suicide is of particular interest to a discussion of cyberbullying consequences since, using a sociological construct, he draws parallels to the links between social dynamics and categories of suicide. . Though society has changed dramatically since his time, the basis of his theories on suicide bear as much relevance regarding human nature and modern society as they did in his era.
Durkheim observed that the rate of suicide shows remarkable constancy over time in a systematic way from society to society and that there are no suicidal boundaries when it comes to gender, religion, class or economic status. Secondly, he categorised suicide into three social forms: egoistical, altruistic and anomic. For the purpose of this dissertation the egoistic and anomic classifications are discussed. These particular forms of suicide relate to individuals or groups who are marginalized by society or larger groups within society as a whole, the outcast(s) - those who cross boundaries and rules stipulated by the larger established group or simply those who, for whatever reason, cannot connect to a unifying and supportive group. As other forms of suicide, (e.g. virtuous, romantic, copycat and the altruistic form of suicide, which fall within his sociological classification), bear little relevance to the issue of cyberbullying, they are not considered in this discussion.
Durkheim does not perceive suicide as being an individual act. Rather, than viewing it from a personal or psychological perspective, he places emphasis on the ‘social fact’ of suicide – i.e. the act is perceived as a social phenomenon rather than a pathological condition. Thus, suicide results from of a lack of social solidarity or social integration and can be viewed as either ‘anomic’ or ‘egoistic’ suicide.
2.10.4.1 Anomic Suicide
A certain type of suicide, ‘anomic’ suicide, results from the breakdown of the “status quo” or social stability in the life of the individual.
Craib (1997) in alluding to Durkheim’s concept of ‘anomic’ suicide states:
Anomic suicide occurs when the rules that govern social life fail and we are left not knowing how to behave, or what is appropriate; this often happens during periods of rapid social change, which will be reflected in individual lives (p.31).
Social integration ceases to exist when the old rules seemingly fail, and with no new social rules to compensate, the marginalized individual is at a loss to cope with their social dilemma. In addition, Durkheim showed that suicidal tendencies can be
influenced by other factors such as family size, nuclear family structure and support within the family group.
2.10.4.2 Egoistic Suicide
Sennett (2006) defines egoistic distress as a particular type of 'social emotion’ that results from 'distress at not belonging to a group' and, at the extreme level can lead to 'egoistic suicide' (p.xvii). This type of distress results from the individual being misplaced from society or facing social isolation which results from being deemed to be outside the ‘norm’ according to the ‘social facts’ of any given society (e.g. those who contravene what is perceived as ‘normal’ sexual orientation in certain social groupings may suffer great distress and social ostracization.)
Today, the speed by which an individual can suffer that social emotion is increased to a greater degree than before due to online communication technologies that can be used to disseminate negative comments on an individual to a wider audience than was ever previously available. This form of cyberbullying is used to marginalize and oppress an individual or individuals. The resulting alienation and constant online denigration of the individual/s character can create a pressured situation that has the potential to result in death by suicide. Durkheim has described such an outcome as ‘egoistic’ suicide – suggesting that it results from the fact that the individual no longer finds a “raison d’etre” for their existence (p.124) and the individual identity finds no basis for acceptance in society. The complex issue of identity is discussed in more detail in the following section.