This is a qualitative case study based on the case of formulation of the national ICT policy in Malawi. The study adopted a critical approach, a philosophical perspective that is “concerned with social issues such as freedom, power, social control, and values with respect to the development, use, and impact of information technology” (Myers & Klein, 2011, p. 17). The critical research approach has now been accepted in IS research (Howcroft & Trauth, 2004). Critical research follows three steps of (i) insight, (ii) critique and (iii) transformation (Myers & Klein, 2011). Insight provides an overall understanding of a phenomenon of interest, which is the effects of the influence of external actors in the formulation of a national ICT policy. Insight informs critique whose aim is to expose issues of power imbalances. The third step of transformation makes recommendations for improving issues of alienation and domination.
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1.8.1 Case study selection
The study used formulation of the national ICT policy in Malawi as the case. Malawi was used to gain an in-depth understanding of how the influence of external actors affects formulation of a public ICT policy. The issue was the main object of enquiry rather than the case (Stake, 1995). Malawi was also selected for the study because of some unique aspects. For example, the country generally depends on 40% of foreign aid for budgetary support (Mkamanga, 2018; Wroe, 2012), which may be a contributing factor to pressures exerted by external actors such as the World Bank in the formulation of the country’s policies. Malawi’s economic status makes it one of those countries in Africa that tend to receive financial support mostly from donors (Birdsall, 2007; Stiglitz, 1999). In addition, the World Bank has described poverty levels in Malawi as being high (World Bank, 2016). The poverty rate at national level in 2016 was in excess of 50% (World Bank, 2018). The country is one of the poorest countries in Africa with a GDP Per Capita of $ 226 (Africa Facts, 2019). The structural, political, economic and social environment of a country may affect the way policies are formulated (Birkland, 2015). In addition, unemployment rate in the country was 22.6% in 2018 (NSO, 2018); literacy rate in 2017 was 62% (Country Economy, 2018). Only 6% of the country’s population of 17.7 million has access to the Internet, which is one of the lowest ICT penetration rates on the continent (World Bank, 2015). Access to satellite Television (TV) is available to only 2.8% of the population (Africanews Space, 2019). With this profile, there is a possibility that donors (or external actors) may have undue influence on the country’s policies. A summary of the indicators is in Table 1.2.
Furthermore, the country has moved down from position 159 in 2010 to 163 in 2015 (Research ICT Africa, 2015). This may suggest that the country is retrogressing in implementation and use of ICTs, which are some policy objectives. With this status in the context, donors may influence the country’s policies in their favour. The data are summarised in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Malawi Country Data (World Bank, 2015)
Description Status
Economy Low income economy; One of the poorest in the World; More than 90% of population lives below $2/day; High unemployment rate; 40% of annual budget financed by aid (Wroe, 2012); GDP Per Capita (Africa Facts, 2019)
Demographics 17.7 million people; only 6% on Internet; Low literacy levels at 72%; occupies 94,276 km² of land
National ICT policy
Followed the NICI route; 3 versions: 2003, 2006 & 2009; Policy launched in 2013 (10 strategic goals)
ICT penetration rates
Access to satellite TV of 2.8% (Africanews Space, 2019); Internet access only 6%
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In addition, the researcher had easy proximity to data since it was within reach; from the researcher’s own people, it is easier to access information in a home country than in another country.
1.8.2 Data collection
Primary data for this research were obtained using semi-structured interviews with policy actors while secondary data were collected from copies of minutes of policy meetings, policy reports and drafts of the policy. For purposes of validation and comparison, formal national ICT policy documents and reports from Botswana, Ghana, Rwanda and South Africa were also collected through the countries’ websites (see Table 4.8). These countries were chosen both for similarity and for differences. Similarly, because the researcher wanted to appreciate various ICT policy initiatives within Africa and for the differences because the researcher sought to understand policy initiatives from West, East and Southern Africa. The different countries also used different approaches to policy formulation. Ghana, Malawi and Rwanda used the NICI framework while Botswana and South Africa used the incremental approach to policy-making (Adam & Gillwald, 2007).
1.8.3 Theoretical underpinning of the study
The study used Bourdieu’s Theory of Practice (ToP) as a lens. Bourdieu’s theory focuses on aspects of domination in social space as a result of unequal allocation of resources (Walther, 2013). The theory analyses how agents dominate or are dominated in social space. Thus, ToP may help us understand how the influence of external actors affects formulation of a national ICT in a developing country. The word influence is synonymous with power and control (Dahl, 1957). Thus, Bourdieu’s theory was deemed necessary because it focuses on aspects of power imbalances among agents (actors) within society (Bourdieu, 1977). The theory illuminates that one common social space in a field (such as national ICT policy formulation) is the field of power (Grenfell, 2008).
The concepts of field (formulation of a national ICT policy), habitus (behaviours, beliefs and values), capital (economic, social, cultural and symbolic), and practice were used to understand the influences of external actors during the formulation of a national ICT policy and how those influences affected the resulting policy.
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Previous studies focusing on ICT policies have mostly used policy network analysis as the theoretical underpinning, which mainly focuses on the relationships between a policy network and policy outcomes (Marsh & Smith , 2000). This study adopts ToP because the researcher is interested in understanding how the influence of external actors affects formulation of a national ICT policy. Influence is a form of domination.