Cotas de la eficiencia optimizada seg´ un Ω

In this research, the in-service Liberal Studies teachers are addressed to raise concerns about the discrepancies between perceptions and practices. As Liberal Studies is a newly formed subject in Hong Kong, limited research on the teachers’ perceptions of inquiry-based learning is conduced. Therefore, this research enriches teachers’ understanding on their own interpretations on the concept of inquiry-based learning and allows them to carry out evaluation on their practices of inquiry-based learning in classroom. Besides, this research serves to point out and clarify some of the misconceptions about inquiry-based learning, which promotes teachers’ reflection on their own perceptions and practices for the purpose of better teaching effectiveness and efficiency. Furthermore, according to this research, it is evident that there is close relationship between perceptions and practices within teachers. It is identified that there are a number of factors which have great impact towards the implementation of inquiry-based learning. This raises educators’ concerns on these factors when considering the use of inquiry-based learning in classroom.

For future study, it is recommended for a longitudinal investigation on reviewing the changes of teachers’ perceptions and practices of inquiry-based learning since the establishment and implementation of NSS Liberal Studies curriculum. Furthermore, as inquiry-based learning originates in other foreign countries, the study can make comparisons on the interpretations of inquiry-based learning of different countries. In addition, more investigation can be conducted to explore the factors which significantly affect the implementation of inquiry-based learning.

50

6.3 Conclusion

To conclude, the in-service teachers in Hong Kong generally have basic understanding on the concept of inquiry-based learning. The practices of inquiry-based learning in Liberal Studies are demonstrated in lessons even though teachers are unaware on their underlying values.

Also, it is concluded that there are some discrepancies found between perceptions and practices. More importantly, perceptions and practices are closely linked and affected with each other. This study thus provides an insight for teachers to be aware and reflexive on the relationship between perceptions and practices.

On the other hand, the research reveals that there are a number of factors concerning about the student’ learning motivation, authority of teachers , teaching of different issues and modules, learning environment as well as examination culture, which pose significant impact towards the implementation of inquiry based learning in Liberal Studies.

Lastly, the research can be concluded by the arguments from Carlina Rinaldi(2006), which is meaningful for every educator to address:

“Learning does not proceed in a linear way, determined and deterministic, by progressive and predictable stages, but rather is constructed through advances, standstills, and retreats that take many directions. The construction of knowledge is a group process. Each individual is nurtured by the hypotheses and theories of others, and by conflicts with others, and advances by co-constructing pieces of knowledge with others through a process of confirmation and disagreement. Above all, the conflicts and disturbance force us to constantly revise our interpretive model and theories on reality…theory

and practice should be in dialogue, two languages expressing our effort to understand the meaning of life. When you think, it’s practice; and when you practice, it’s theory.”

51

References:

Audet, R. H. & Jordan, L.K (2005). Integrating inquiry across the curriculum. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Bartlett, F. C. (1958). Thinking: An experimental and social study. London: Allen & Unwin.

Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. (1989). Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 361-392). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Bernard, H.R. (2002). Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative methods. 3rd edition. AltaMira Press , Walnut Creek, California.

Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham: SRHE. Open University Press.

Brophy, J. & Good, T.L. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M.C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

CDC & HKEAA. (2007). Liberal studies curriculum and assessment guide (secondary 4-6). Hong Kong SAR, China: Curriculum Development Council. Retrieved 20 May 2015 from http://334.edb.hkedcity.net/doc/eng/ls_final_e_070508.pdf

Centre for Excellence in Enquiry-Based Learning (CEEBL). (2007). “What is Enquiry-Based

Learning (EBL)?”. Retrieved 20 May, 2015 from http://www.campus.manchester.ac.uk/ceebl/.

Chapman, O. (1999). Inservice Teacher Development in Mathematical Problem Solving. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 2(2), 121‐142.

52

Crawford, B. A. (2000). Embracing the essence of inquiry: New roles for science teachers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(9), 916-937.

Da Ponte, J.P. (1994). Mathematics teachers’ professional knowledge. In J.P. da Ponte & J.F. Matos (Eds.), Proceedings of PME 18. Lisbon: The University of Lisbon.

Deng, Z. (2009). The formation of a school subject and the nature of curriculum content: An analysis of Liberal Studies in Hong Kong. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 41(5), 585–604. doi:10.1080/00220270902767311

Dewey, J. (1938) Experience and education. New York: Macmillan.

Drayton, B., & Falk, J. K. (2001). Tell-tale signs of the inquiry-oriented classroom. NASSP Bulletin, 85(623), 24–34

Dweck, C. (2000). Self-Theories: The Role in Motivation, Personality and Development. London: Psychology Press.

Eberle, B. (1982). Visual think：A“SCAMPER” tool for useful imaging. New York： D.O.K. Publisher Inc.

Edelson, D.C. Gordin, D.N. and Pea, R.D. (1999). “Addressing the Challenges of Inquiry-Based Learning Through Technology and Curriculum Design,” Journal of the Learning Sciences, 8, 391-450.

53

Ennis, R. H. (1989). Critical thinking and subject specificity. Qualification and needed research,. Educational Researcher, 18, 4-10.

Glassman, M., & Whaley, K. (2000). Dynamic aims: The use of long-term projects in early childhood classrooms in light of Dewey’s educational philosophy. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 2(1), Retrieved on 21 April 2013, from http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v2n1/glassman.html

Grossman, P.L., Wilson, S.M. & Shulman, L.S. (1989). Teachers of substance: Subject matter knowledge for teaching. In M.C. Reynolds. Knowledge base for beginning teacher. New York: Pergamon Press.

Hacker, D. J. (1999). Metacognition: Definitions and empirical foundations. The MIT encyclopedia of cognitive sciences. Retrieved July 12, 2004, from http://cognet.mit.edu/MITECS/Entry/moses

Harste, J. E. (2001). What education as inquiry is and isn’t. In S. Boran & B. Comber (Eds.), Critiquing whole language and classroom inquiry (pp. 1-17). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Herron, M. D. (1971). The nature of science enquiry. School Review, 79(2), 171-212.

Hodson, D. (1998). Teaching and Learning Science: Towards a Personalized Approach. Open University Press, Philadelphia.

Hodson, D. (2003). Time for Action: Science Education for an Alternative Future, International Journal of science Education 25(6): 645–670.

54

Hughes, G. (2000). Marginalization of Socioscientific Material in Science-Technology-Society Science Curricula: Some Implications for Gender Inclusivity and Curriculum Reform, Journal of Research In Science Teaching 37(5): 426–440.

Kahn, P., & O'Rourke, K. (2005). Understanding enquiry-based learning. In Handbook of Enquiry & Problem Based Learning. Galway: CELT.

Koo, W.S. (2010).The sense-making process of teachers in institutional change in curriculum: A case study on the implementation of the subject Liberal Studies in Hong Kong. The Chinese University of Hong Kong .ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (UMI No. 3447730)

Krajcik, J., Blumenfeld, P. C., Marx, R. W., & Soloway, E. (2000).Instructional, curricular, and technological supports for inquiry in science classrooms. In J. Minstrell (Ed.), Inquiring into inquiry learning and teaching in science (pp. 283-315). Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Kuhlthau, C. C. (1988). Meeting the information needs of children and young adults: Basing library media programs on developmental states. Journal of Youth Services in Libraries,2(1), 51–57.

Lai, E., & Lam, C.C. (2011). Learning to teach in a context of education reform: Liberal Studies student teachers’ decision-making in lesson planning. Journal of Education for Teaching 37 (2), 219– 236.doi: 10.1080/02607476.2011.558287

Lewis, J.L. & Sheppard, S.R.J. (2006). Culture and communication: can landscape visualization improve forest management consultation with indigenous communities? Landscape and Urban Planning, 77, p291–313.

55

Lu, C. C., Hong, J. C., & Tseng, Y. C. (2007). The effectiveness of inquiry-based learning by scaffolding students to ask “5 Why” questions. Redesigning pedagogy 2007 Conference. National Institute of Education, Singapore.

Lunenberg, M. L., & Volman, M. (1999). Active learning: Views and actions of students and teachers in basic education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15(4), 431-445.

Mak, K.W. (2011).Making sense of new senior secondary Liberal Studies in Hong Kong curriculum reform: Teacher perspectives. The Chinese University of Hong Kong. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (UMI No. 3500805)

Marzano, R. J. (2000). 20th century advances in instruction. In R.S. Brandt (Ed.), Education in a new era. Alexandria, Va. : Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Myhill, D. & Warren, P. (2005). Scaffolds or straitjacks? Critical moments in classroom discourse. Education Review,57(1),55-69.

National Research Council. (1996). The national science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Ng, F.H. (2006). Teacher knowledge construction in applying the issue-enquiry approach in Liberal Studies: A study of tensions and possibilities. "School Improvement and University-school Partnership" Conference. Retrieved from http://www.fed.cuhk.edu.hk/~cthk/paper/a5.pdf

Oven, P., Wells, F., Wallis, P. & Hawkins, C. (2011) . Development Inquiry for Learning: Reflecting collaborative ways to learn how to learn in higher education.

56

Piaget, J. (1967). The mental development of the child. In D. Elkind (Ed.), Six psychological studies. NY: Random House (Original work publisher in 1940).

Pataray-Chin, J. & Robertson, M. (2002)."Misconceptions about a curriculum-as-inquiry framework”. Language Arts 79(6), 498-505.

Pedretti, E. (1996). Septic Tank crisis: A Case Study of Science, Technology and Society Education in an Elementary School, International Journal of Science Education ,19(10): 1211–1230.

Pedretti, E. (1999). Decision-making and STS Education: Exploring Scientific Knowledge and Social Responsibility in Schools and Science Centres through an Issues-Based Approach, School Science and Mathematics 99(4): 174–181.

Polman, J. L. & Pea, R. D. (2001). Transformative communication as a cultural tool for guiding- inquiry science. Science Education, 85(3), 223-238.

Prawat, R.S. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning: A Constructivist perspective. American Journal of Education, 100, 354-395.

Price, B. (2003). Studying nursing using problem-based and enquiry-based learning. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rinaldi, C. (2006). In dialogue with Reggio Emilia: Contextualizing, Interpreting and Evaluating Early Childhood Education. Abingdon: RoutledgeFalmer.

57

Roehrig, G.H. & Kruse, R.A. (2005). The role of teachers’ beliefs and knowledge in the adoption of a reform-based curriculum. School Science and Mathematics, 105(8), 412–422. doi: 10.1111/j.1949-8594.2005.tb18061.

Roth, M. & De`sautels, J. (eds.). (2002). Science Education as/for Sociopolitical Action, Peter Lang, New York.

Saad, R., & Boujaoude, S. (2012). The Relationship between Teachers’ Knowledge and Beliefs about Science and Inquiry and Their Classroom Practices. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 8(2), 113-128.

Sargent, E. & Fearon, T. (2011) How You Can Talk to Anyone in Every Situation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Shulman, L.S. (1986). Paradigms and research programs in the study of teaching: A contemporary perspective. In M.C. Wittrock (Ed.). Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd ed.), (pp.3-36). New York: Macmillan

Slavin, R. (1990). Cooperative learning theory, research and practice . Englewood Cliffs, N.K. :Prentice-Hall.

Song, Y. & Looi, C. (2012). Linking teacher beliefs, practices and student inquiry-based learning in a CSCL environment: A tale of two teachers. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 7(1), 129–159. doi: 10.1007/s11412-011-9133-9

58

Sudzina, M.R. (1997). Case study as a constructivist pedagogy for teaching educational psychology. Educational Psychology Review, 9(2), 199-216.

Tobin, K. & McRobbie, C. J. (1996). Cultural myths as constraints to the enacted science curriculum. Science Education, 80, 223-241.

Trigwell, K., Prosser, M., & Waterhouse, F. (1999). Relations between teachers’ approaches to teaching and students’ approaches to learning. Higher Education, 37, 57–70.

Verloop, N. ,Driel, J.V. & Meijer,P. (2001). Teacher knowledge and the knowledge based of teaching. International Journal of Educational Research, 25,441-461.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

Wallace, J. & Louden, W. (1992). Science Teaching and Teachers’ Knowledge: Prospects for Reform of Elementary Classrooms, Science Education 76(5): 507–521.

Wang, S. & Wang, H. (2011). Teaching higher order thinking in the introductory MIS course: A model-directed approach. Journal of Education for Business. Jul/Aug 2011, 86(4), 208-213.

Watkins, D. (2000). Learning and teaching: a cross-cultural perspective. School Leadership and Management, 20(2), 161-173.

Wilson, S.M., Shulman, L.S. & Richert , A.E. (1987). ‘150 different ways’ of knowing: Representations of knowledge in teaching. In J. Calderhead (Ed.), Exploring teachers’ thinking(pp.104-124). London: Cassell.

59

Wirkala, C., & Kuhn, D. (2011). Problem-based learning in K-12 education: Is it effective and how does it achieve its effects? American Educational Research Journal, 48(5), 1157-1186.

Wood, D., Bruner, J. S. & Ross, G.. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem-solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89-100.

Yee, Y. (2013). Teachers’ perceptions of issue-enquiry approach of liberal studies in Hong Kong. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 8(4), 391-402.

Yilmaz, K. (2008). Constructivism: Its theoretical underpinnings, variations, and implications for classroom instruction. Educational Horizons, 8(3), 161-172.

Zion, M. & Slezak, M. (2005). It takes two to tango: in dynamic inquiry, the self-directed student acts in association with the facilitating teacher. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21, 875-894.

Zeidler, D., Sadler, T., Simmons, M. & Howes, E. (2005). Beyond STS: A Research-based Framework for Socioscientific Issues Education, Science Education 89, 357–377.

Zohar, A., & Dori, Y. J. (2003). Higher order thinking skills and low achieving students: Are they mutually exclusive? Journal of the Learning Sciences, 12, 145-183.

60

Appendices