LO CRÓNICO DEL DESASTRE

What is home economics?

Home economics is a field of study which is concerned with the empowerment and wellbeing of individuals, families and communities in their everyday living (Home Economics Institute of Australia 2010; International Federation for Home Economics 2008). It draws from a range of disciplines including food, nutrition and health,

24 textiles and clothing, consumer science, design and technology, food science and hospitality, human development and family studies, and education and community services (International Federation for Home Economics 2008).

Historically, home economics was focused on skills relating to the home and household management for sustainable family living (International Federation for Home Economics 2008). However, it now includes the broader environment, as it is better understood that all levels (individual, family, local community and global community) have an impact on the capacities, choices and priorities of individuals, families and communities (International Federation for Home Economics 2008). Several major societal changes have influenced the home economics discipline. These include: developments in science and agriculture; changes in gender roles; changes in consumption and globalisation patterns; generational characteristics; the emergence of new technologies and the digital realm; significant changes in

individual and family structures; changes in the food environment; and, rising global obesity rates (Pendergast, McGregor & Turkki 2012; Stitt 1996).

History of home economics in Australian schools

During the 1880’s, Australian schools began to take responsibility for teaching food skills to students (Reiger 1985) when manual training was first introduced (Martin 1910). Manual training courses were gender specific, focused towards wood or metal trades careers for males, and housekeeping and cooking pathways for females (Suttor 1882; Woodward 1887). However, 19th century food education was fraught with tension between the art of cooking and the science of food – a familiar conflict that continues to resonate in food education today (Turner & Wilks 2016).

The first decade of the 20th century saw the growth of industry and commerce and a rise in these professions, and by 1929, food design and processing was among the top five manufacturing industries in Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics 1988). However, ‘domestic science’ or ‘home economics’ continued to reflect home care duties such as laundry, house management and budgeting tasks to prepare girls for married life (New South Wales Cookery Teachers' Association 1942; Peacock 1982). By the early 1940’s, scientific advances brought about technological and scientific advancements in the agricultural, processing and manufacturing industries and

25 expansions in the Australian food export market (Farrer 2005). The development of nutrition and food science led to schools to provide an opportunity for those female students to study food science for their Leaving Certificate (New South Wales Department of Education 1945; Peacock 1982).

By 1952, the post-war surge of innovation in food design and knowledge resulted in a new direction for the Home Economics syllabus, and as such, it was designed to integrate with the science faculty (Turner & Wilks 2016). This presented a dilemma for teachers’ interpretation of the syllabus, as the tension between food science and the need to foster the family unit returned (Peacock 1982). As a result, many teachers dropped the science theme (Peacock 1982).

By the 1970’s, perceptions regarding women’s roles were starting to shift (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2012; Benn 2012; Thompson 1986). This resulted in further changes to the food education syllabus, which was directed towards employment pathways such as home economics and dietetics (Peacock 1982), and later,

hospitality and the food industry (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2007). It was around this time that males began to be enrolled in home economics (Benn 2012). It marked the beginning of the devaluation of the subject in both public opinion and in the school system, as lessons were shorter and their number reduced (Benn 2012).

Current position of home economics in Australian schools

In 2011, all Australian states and territories began implementing the Australian Curriculum (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority 2014, 2016). Prior to this, each Australian state and territory were responsible for their own curriculum (Home Economics Institute of Australia 2010). During this time, it was a school-based decision as to whether home economics would be offered as a holistic subject, or as specialist home economics-related subjects such as human

development and food technology (Home Economics Institute of Australia 2010). This meant that the content taught and pedagogical approaches varied substantially between States and Territories, and even schools, and students completed school with various levels of food-related knowledge and skills (Home Economics Institute of Australia 2010).

26 The development of an Australian Curriculum was designed to stipulate what all Australian school students should be taught, regardless of their circumstances, type of school they attend, or the location of their school (Australian Curriculum

Assessment and Reporting Authority). It was intended to address the issue of subject variation with formal curriculum mandates, which it did successfully for core

subjects such as English, Science and Mathematics (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority 2016).

However, the position of home economics in the Australian curriculum has been criticised by food education experts and home economics associations for being somewhat neglected (Home Economics Institute of Australia 2010; Home Economics Victoria 2009; Yeatman 2013). The Australian curriculum does not recognise home economics as a discipline area in its own right, which has been the case since the 1970’s (Benn 2012). Nutrition education is instead split between the

Health and Physical Activity and Design and Technology domains (Australian

Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority 2016). The position of home economics, or lack thereof, in the curriculum has been blamed for playing a significant role in diminishing and devaluing the subject area (Home Economics Victoria 2009). Home economics is no longer a compulsory subject in Australian secondary schools, as curriculum requirements can still be met without it. It has been suggested by curriculum researchers that ‘optionalising’ subjects effectively ensures their exclusion from the curriculum, as compulsory subjects do not leave enough time or resources for optional subjects (Stitt 1996).

Along with the large number of societal changes, the exclusion of home economics from the set compulsory ‘core’ subjects can also be attributed to a push towards science and technology in the curriculum in recent decades (Home Economics Institute of Australia 2010). Home economics is the only subject that focuses on skills needed for everyday life and meeting basic needs (Smith & de Zwart 2010). However, schools have become much more ‘academic’ and geared towards career entry, rather than life skills education. This builds capacity for everyday living by focusing on fundamental ‘life-skills’ such as critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decision-making, and practical and social skills, i.e. skills that prepare students for a range of real-life challenges (Colatruglio & Slater 2014; Dodd, Follmer-Reece & Kostina-Ritchey 2015; Renwick 2016). More recently, the evidence surrounding Australia’s relatively poor performance in literacy and

27 numeracy compared to other countries (Australian Council for Educational Research 2018), has led the government to make literacy and numeracy a national priority. In 2012, the Commonwealth Government set a national target ‘for Australia to be

placed, by 2025, in the top 5 highest performing countries based on the performance of school students in reading, mathematics and science’ (Australian Government 2017). This has, consequently, further forced subjects such as home economics to the

sidelines.

Despite home economics being a largely marginalised, non-compulsory subject within the secondary curriculum, most secondary schools still offer food related subjects such as Home Economics, Food Technology, Food Studies, Food and Health (Markow, Coveney & Booth 2012). However, these subjects are generally limited to the lower secondary years (i.e. years 7 and 8) (Home Economics Institute of Australia 2010) and students are more likely to be assessed on their ability to develop a commercial food product, rather than to prepare a healthy meal in a

domestic kitchen (Stitt 1996). Food education in secondary schools also tends to face many challenges including insufficient funding and time allocation, lack of support from school administrations, poor student and parental interest, and lack of qualified staff (Grundy & Henry 1995; Moore, Asay & Curry 2006; Pendergast, Garvis & Kanasa 2011; Ronto et al. 2017a, 2017b; Ronto et al. 2016c; Smith & de Zwart 2010).

Home economics education around the world

The devaluation of home economics is not exclusive to Australia. In fact, it has been a common occurrence around the world (Stitt 1996). However, there are some countries that have been working towards mandatory food education within their school curricula.

England has recently introduced ‘Cooking and nutrition’ into the National Curriculum for England for all children and young people aged 5-14 years

(Department for Education 2014a). The curriculum states that “Learning how to cook is a crucial life skill that enables pupils to feed themselves and others affordably and well, now and in later life” (Department for Education 2013, p. 183). The food education content is progressive, starting with primary school students aged 5-11 years being taught where food comes from, the basic principles of a healthy and

28 varied diet, how to prepare and cook mainly savoury dishes using a range of cooking techniques, and to understand seasonality, where food is grown, reared, caught and processed (Department for Education 2013). The secondary school curriculum for students aged 11-14 aims to ensure that students can understand and apply the principles of nutrition and health, can cook a repertoire of mostly savoury dishes that are healthy and varied, become competent in a range of cooking techniques, and understand the source, seasonality and characteristics of a wide range of ingredients (Department for Education 2014b).

In Northern Ireland, food education is supported, but not mandatory in primary schools (Weichselbaum et al. 2011). However, home economics is compulsory for all secondary students aged 11-14 years and is focused on real-life issues that will help to support them for future independent living (Weichselbaum et al. 2011). In The Republic of Ireland, formal food education is provided from birth as part of

Aistear: the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework in childcare and other pre-

school settings (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment 2017), and is built upon as students progress through the education system (Weichselbaum et al. 2011). While home economics is not a mandatory subject in secondary school, more than one third (36%) of students elect to study it in the Junior Certificate (where students are aged 11-15 years) (McCloat & Caraher 2016; Stitt 1996; Weichselbaum et al. 2011). Over a three year period, a minimum of 40% of the program is dedicated to food studies and culinary skills and the assessment includes a written examination, as well as a practical culinary skills examination, which accounts for 35-45% of total marks depending on the level (McCloat & Caraher 2016). In 2010, 23% of students went on to study home economics for the Leaving Certificate in the Senior cycle (where students are aged 15-18 years) (Weichselbaum et al. 2011). This is substantially more than in Australia, where just 6% of Victorian students who completed their Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE), chose to undertake Food and Technology in 2016 (Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2017). The higher participation rates in Ireland are possibly due to students learning to value nutrition and food skills highly because they have been instilled in them since they were young. The professional capacity and expertise of home economics teachers in Ireland also contributes to the success of food education in Irish schools, with all home economics teachers receiving the same education and qualifications (McCloat & Caraher 2016).

29 In Finland, home economics is a compulsory subject in Year 7 (13-14 year old

students) and becomes an optional subject thereafter (International Federation for Home Economics 2018). However, as in Ireland, it is one of the most popular elective subjects, particularly among boys, with some 50% choosing to take home economics (Sahlberg & Hargreaves 2011; Stitt 1996). The focus of home economics in Finland is on the development of life skills to enable students to be responsible for managing their own health, finances and social and environmental relationships (Stitt 1996). The home economics curriculum in Finland differs greatly from that of many other Western countries in that the focus is on the school, the home, the family and the community, rather than on a food technology or industrial perspective (Stitt 1996).

While it appears that the Australian curriculum does not provide much support for food education, in other countries such as France, Spain, Germany and Italy, food education is not mandatory at all (Weichselbaum et al. 2011).