Several jurisdictions mandate the placement of clocks on electronic gaming machines. The rationale for such legislated requirements is predicated on empirical evidence that players loss track of time spend on devices. Several studies have demonstrated that players obtain elevated scores on instruments measuring dissociation (Delfabbro, & Panozzo, 2004; Diskin, & Hodgins, 1999; 2001; Kofoed, Morgan, Buchowski, & Carr, 1997; Kuley, & Jacobs, 1988). It is argued that the structural characteristics of a gaming machine are such that the
excitement generated by the anticipation of winning/wins coupled with the non-skill
repetitive nature of play fosters permits the player to enter a ‘zone’ or state of ‘dissociation’ (Schull 2012). As a consequence of a narrowing of focus of attention and being immersed and totally absorbed in play, players lose awareness of time spent (Anderson & Brown, 1984; Jacobs, 1986). Involvement in electronic gaming machines by a subpopulation of gamblers appears to be motivated by psychological needs to emotionally escape from
negative affective states through dissociation (Jacobs, 1986; Scannell, Quirk, Smith, Maddern, & Dickerson, 2000).
Dissociation has multiple meanings ranging from a pervasive trait, altered state of consciousness, avoidance coping strategy, and transient stress-related state, with the concept residing along on a continuum from benign common experiences to pathological states (Garcia, 2006). Setting aside the imprecision of the concept, the premise is that interruptions to the psychological state of dissociation and drawing attention to time spent could represent an effective approach to minimising excessive expenditure in respect to both time and money (Ladouceur & Sevigny, 2009). Interventions, such as imposed breaks in play with messages designed to draw attention to current behaviours appear effective in moderating behavioural patterns of gambling by directing the player to evaluate session play (time and money spent). In this context, clocks might assist increasing player awareness of estimated time spent.
Setting time limits prior to commencement of play is not contingent upon the player’s awareness of time per se; attention is only drawn to the duration of play being approached or exceeded irrespective of time displayed on a clock. By this is meant that the fundamental consideration is to have clocks interrupt play or draw attention to the approaching time limit by an alarm, not simply having the time or duration displayed. Blaszczynski, Gainsbury and Karlov (2014) found that less than 10% set the clock to monitor duration of play, with very few leaving the machine on expiration of time or reporting or reporting any effects on
total amount of time or money spent gambling. These observations suggest that clocks and time in and of themselves, are insufficient in either breaking dissociation or influence players to modify behaviour.
In most circumstances, the precise role of clocks in fostering awareness of time spent as a responsible gambling tool remains poorly researched. The question arises as to whether or not the provision of clocks in the absence of accompanying breaks in play with messages or pre-set limits contribute to increased awareness of time, and subsequently, reducing session duration. In addition, as indicated by Ladouceur and Sevigny (2009), it is important to determine that iatrogenic effects are not produced by the placement of clocks on machines; that is, awareness of time may result in the player increases rate of play and bet size.
Several conditions are required if clocks can be considered to be effective in exerting any beneficial impacts on play. Clocks must be prominently visible, a player must be motivated to know the current time or to calculate the duration of play, and must take some action in response to knowing the time; for example, ceasing play to meet an obligation, or in
response to concern over the time already spent playing.
Although evidence indicates that players lose track of time, no studies have systematically investigated the prevalence rate of players failing to meet obligations, for example, returning to work, picking up children. Anecdotal reports suggest that some players do so but it remains unclear what proportion this applies to, or whether this is the result of intense absorption or a decision to continue gambling rather than attend to their obligation. Of the few studies evaluating the singular effects of clocks as a responsible gambling intervention in in-venue situations with non-analogue populations, results suggest that the majority of players do not perceive this facility as useful in controlling gambling behaviours (Focal Research, 2002, 2004; Ladouceur & Sevigny, 2009). Using a convenience sample of 38 VLT players, Ladouceur and Sevigny (2009) found that the majority (89%) noticed and used the clock to determine time, with 73% reporting time was not an important
consideration moderating play. Although half suggested clocks to be useful, consistent with the findings of Focal Research (2002, 2004) and Delfabbro and Panozzo (2004), three quarters indicated the feature would not assist in behavioural control over their gambling. These findings are inconsistent with the data reported by Hing (2004) where a third of players failed to notice clocks with an unknown proportion expressing a preference for the presence of more visible clocks.
In the absence of behavioural measures of the impact of clocks on session duration, or on players ceasing play to meet obligations, reliance is placed on elicited subjective reports in determining any impacts. Players consider clocks could be useful. At present however, it would appear that clocks, in isolation from imposed breaks in play coupled with messages, are not perceived positively as a responsible gambling tool that would effectively support behavioural control.
Key Points
n Studies using self-report questionnaires have consistently demonstrated that during a session of play on electronic gaming machines, players lose track of time.
n Clocks on machines have been mandated in some jurisdiction in a bid to increase player awareness of time spent playing.
n No empirical studies have systematically determined the extent to which players fail to meet obligations as a result of losing track of time.
n Qualitative and self-report studies indicate that players consider clocks could be a useful feature but the majority perceive this facility to be ineffective in assisting control over gambling behaviours.
9.4 Implications for Policy and Research
The provision of warnings and messages are important in informing players of probabilities of winning, cautioning of the potential risks associated with excessive gambling, and directing players to reappraise their behaviour during sessions of play. Although evidence based on self-report data suggests that messages are effective in moderating intentions to reduce gambling in the short term, there remains an absence of empirical data on the longer-term impacts on actual expenditure of time and money. Online forms of gambling lend
themselves readily amenable to the display of personalised messages triggered by specific behavioural tracking characteristics: duration of session, frequency of play, level of
expenditure, and/or deviation from personally calculated average play. For electronic gaming machines, dynamic informative and personal appraisal messages that interrupt play should be a core feature on all machines. For table, cards, and betting (offline sports and horses) forms of gambling, the provision of information is restricted to brochures, pamphlets and signage located or clearly posted in venues.
9.5 Recommendations
n Conduct longer term research into the type of message contents that optimally promotes responsible gambling practices.
n Conduct research into determining both the mode of delivery and physical characteristics of that maximally attract a player’s attention during play.
n For online forms of gambling, determine which behavioural tracking data represents the best parameter to trigger informative or personal appraisal messages during sessions of play.
n For gaming machines, evaluate the physical characteristics, content, location and access to responsible gambling messages that attract attention and personally resonate with players.