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Destructive thinking in belief systems

According to Russell & Pargament (quoted in McNamara 2006:91) a great deal of the recent research on religion and mental health, has found a positive correlation between religion and health and well-being. But, according to these authors, many of these studies measured global indicators of religiousness thus limiting their research findings. Therefore, these authors claim, a closer assessment will reveal that there is also a darker side to religion and spirituality. This means, some religious expressions may actually be more harmful than helpful. A few empirical studies have begun to identify “religious risk factors” for poorer health (Russell & Pargament; quoted in McNamara 2006:91, 108). I therefore dedicate this section to exploring the more destructive side of religion in the form of ‘destructive thinking’ as experienced by the religious/spiritual individual, owing to its harmful effect upon the individual.

For the devout Christian/religious person, religious beliefs form part of their everyday lives, and affect their life goals, daily thoughts and activities. Religious beliefs can have a powerful impact on how one perceives, thinks about, and responds to their problems. Each religious belief or activity has its benefits and consequences. Thus, religious beliefs can have a powerful influence over one, for either good or bad.

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Certain types of religious thinking and beliefs may be beneficial; others are associated with decreased mental health. This may be illustrated by the individual who believes they are being punished by God, which has been found in some cases to increase psychiatric symptoms (Paukert et al. 2009:105). There are findings that show that negative emotions such as despair, loneliness, resentment, helplessness, shame, guilt, can cause disease due to their harmful effects upon the body’s endocrine, immune, and autonomic nervous systems (Haris & De Angelis 2008; Mookadam & Arthur 2004; Koenig 1998; quoted in Griffith 2010:7). There is also evidence showing that certain medical diseases are made worse by physiological changes associated with negative emotions. Psychiatric disorders can also be activated by prolonged negative emotions. Griffith (2010:7) states, religious faith might sometimes weaken such negative emotions, but this is not always so, and in some cases, religious faith has made them worse. Religious beliefs have also been found to spawn negative emotions in one’s life, for example, by experiencing exaggerated guilt for personal sins; believing one’s illness to be a punishment from God; or feeling abandoned by God in a crisis (Pargament, Koenig & Tarakashwar 2001, 2004; quoted in Griffith 2010:7).

The following discussion illustrates the powerful influence of religious beliefs over the individual. Religious beliefs influence what the individual deems to be real, thus defining, ordering, and assigning meaning to everything within its scope or range, excluding any alternatives (Griffith 2010:7). Religion can sometimes stir up strong emotions that sets off mood, anxiety, and psychotic symptoms (particularly emotions associated with vulnerability, uncertainty, and threat) (Griffith 2010:8). Religious zeal can also trigger the onset of psychiatric illness or exacerbate its intensity (Griffith 2010:8). Religious beliefs can affect one suffering from a psychiatric illness (by adding meaning to their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours). Religious beliefs can (irrationally) magnify guilt, apathy, or self hatred in a person suffering from depression (Griffith 2010:8). Some of the negative effects of religious beliefs are summarized by Griffith (2010:8) as follows, religious beliefs can: amplify the intensity of intrusive thoughts in obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD); intensify any anxiety disorder (particularly if they generate a sense of fear or uncertainty); set off somatization and medically unexplained physical symptoms (especially if one’s religious beliefs silence expressions of felt distress; transform delusions and hallucinations in dramatic and destructive ways among those with schizophrenia or psychoses; have lethal consequences when used to justify suicidal or homicidal impulses (Griffith 2010:8). People with psychiatric disorders suffer daily; often those around them are unaware of their suffering. Religious faith sometimes exacerbates this suffering instead of reduces it (Griffith 2010:8).

Koenig (2009:283) states, “Religious beliefs and practices have long been linked to hysteria, neurosis, and psychotic delusions. However, recent studies have identified another side of religion that may serve as a psychological and social resource for coping with stress. While religious beliefs and practices can represent powerful sources of comfort, hope, and meaning, they are often intricately entangled with

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neurotic and psychotic disorders, sometimes making it difficult to determine whether they are a resource or a liability” (Koenig 2009:283). It is illustrated here that in some cases, religious beliefs and practices may serve as a resource for coping with illness, and in other cases, contribute to mental pathology. Often people turn to religion hoping to find refuge, comfort, hope and meaning when they are experiencing suffering, pain, mental illness, emotional problems, or situational difficulties. When they do, sometimes they are helped, and other times not. In some instances (especially in the emotionally vulnerable) religious beliefs and doctrines may reinforce neurotic tendencies, enhance fears or guilt, and restrict life rather than enhance it. Here, religious beliefs are used in primitive and defensive ways to avoid making necessary life changes (Koenig 2009:289).

Not all studies link religion to better coping, greater well-being, or positive emotions and personality traits. Some studies report worse mental health among those who are more religious (Koenig 2005:70). But Koenig (2009:289) recognizes that not all research supports the argument that religious involvement has an adverse effect on mental health. There is also evidence that religious involvement is related to better coping with stress and less depression, suicide, anxiety, and substance abuse (Koenig 2009:289). Paukert et al. (2009:107) also note religious beliefs as providing relief from stress, “Religion may decrease stress by reducing the perceived harm associated with stressful situations and promoting the thought that one will be able to cope effectively. Beliefs such as, “God is a just and benevolent God,” “God is one’s partner through suffering,” “Religious rituals provide a sense of security,” and “Religion provides support,” can help people cope in difficult circumstances by encouraging a sense of meaning, purpose, and self-esteem. Without such coping responses, significant life stressors may cause the person to feel that all hope is lost”. Religious beliefs can also help one see a situation from a different perspective, e.g. by encouraging one to consider the role God in their daily life. If they believe God is actively present in their life, guided imagery can be used to help them sense the presence of God while in distress. Or by thinking about God and religion, one may feel they are never alone. Consequently, these improve mood and coping responses (Paukert et al. 2009:107). By reflecting on how life problems are conceptualized in one’s religion, individuals can learn to change the way they perceive stressors. E.g. coming to view stressors as tests of faith; acts of God (the reasons for which cannot be known to the individual); or a pathway to a better life. In this way, religion has the potential to increase hope, optimism, and feelings of self-worth, even in the face of life-threatening illness (Paukert et al. 2009:107). Understanding one’s religious and spiritual beliefs allow the individual to appreciate this value as a resource for healthy mental and social functioning; and recognize when their beliefs are distorted or limiting.

In CBT theory, problems such as anxiety and depression result from maladaptive thoughts and behaviours. Modifying these helps to reduce the anxiety and depression. Challenging irrational thoughts and engaging in activities that provide opportunities for positive reinforcement also have a positive

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effect. Paukert et al. (2009:106) states, incorporating religious beliefs into the process of challenging irrational thoughts and increasing the frequency of religious behaviours may increase the effectiveness of CBT, especially with older religious adults. One’s beliefs, tradition and values, can provide their very reason for being, but these can also be the reason for their experienced distress and suffering (quoted in Natale 1986:51). Immaturely misinterpreting or rigidly and uncritically holding onto one’s beliefs can be the cause of distress or suffering (quoted in Natale 1986:51). Religious influences can thus be constructive (health promoting), as well as destructive (Griffith 2010:3). According to Wilson & Creswell (1999:134) religious beliefs can create dysfunctional cognitive processes, negative emotions, or maladaptive behaviours, such as distorted perceptions of reality, pathological guilt, or self destructive behaviours, thereby contributing to stress. Religious beliefs can influence attitudes and habits that affect health i.e. they can influence the timing for when someone seeks treatment (Griffith 2010:6).

Destructive thinking within the pastoral context

What is meant by destructive thinking within a pastoral context? Here, I would like to explore the link between “destructive thinking” and pathology within the realm of Christian faith. I look at the way in which pastoral care can help people to deal with and understand life’s problems through their relationship with God. I also inquire about the role that faith plays when dealing with life problems. As human beings we are confronted with and need to deal with daily hassles, frustrations, and demands. The problems we encounter, however, are not limited to physical, economic and material issues. As spiritual beings, we are also confronted with spiritual issues. People are more than just the sum total of their physical, psychological and social components (Louw 1998:20). Therefore, the care and cure given to humans as spiritual beings should help them to (meaningfully) address these issues that affect their daily lives as well. The essential function of pastoral care is described as ‘cura animarum’ - cure of human souls (Louw 1998:1). This entails care for the whole person, but from a specifically spiritual perspective (Louw 1998:20). As spiritual beings, we also search to know the meaning of life (Louw 1998:20). A theological approach to pastoral care seeks to know how “the good news of the kingdom of God and salvation should be interpreted in terms of human experience/reality and social context so that the substance of our Christian faith may contribute to a life of meaning and quality” (Louw 1998:1).

The concepts discussed throughout this chapter become important here, i.e. inappropriate God-images, a pathological faith, and so on. The issue here is to understand the inhibiting effects of these destructive thoughts/cognitions on the individual’s religious beliefs, God-images; spiritual formation, faith formation, and spiritual well-being. It is about identifying, examining and reframing cognitive errors and destructive thoughts that lead to inappropriate God-images, spiritual and faith pathology. It has become clear that our understanding and image of God influences our daily life and experiences. Here, I seek to explore experiences of faith and perceptions of God from the perspective of the Christian faith. Assessing the impact and function of God-images is an important part of pastoral counseling. A person’s concepts

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and images are crucial in the process of developing spiritual maturity (Louw 1998:12). When one holds distorted perceptions of God, it may cause faith pathology, which has destructive and negative effects on a person’s life. The intended desire is for the development of a more constructive and positive perception of God as these contribute positively to the development of faith and mental health (Louw 1998:12). Pastoral therapy is therefore about developing a constructive concept and understanding of God in order to encourage growth in faith and to impart meaning and hope (Louw 1998:12). The ultimate purpose of pastoral therapy then is to foster a mature faith and spirituality (Louw 1998:19). My research here is aimed at understanding God in order to convey God’s comfort and to instil meaning and hope. Louw (1998:5) describes the following effect, influence and change envisaged by pastoral care: “Pastoral care involves intervention, generating support resources, change, renewal, growth and decision making”.

Pathology of faith

Louw (1998:241) describes faith as becoming pathological when “the focus on God and the interest in faith contents alienates people from their immediate reality, so that their faculties of discernment are blinded by either an artificial identification with God, or an obsessive, and thus unilateral identification, with God” (Louw 1998:241). Louw (1998:243) states: “A pathology of faith is also connected to the misuse of religion (when God is used for selfish purposes or when religion is practiced to manipulate God); fanatical actions, resulting in loss of contact with reality; legalistic approaches which are strongly prescriptive and demanding; acetic behaviour which is damaging to life; artificial commitments and pietistic exclusivism. An analysis of these elements reveals that the following fundamental problem often lurks below all such pathologies: there is a continual interaction between a neurotic personality structure and a false or inappropriate perception and image of God. It is extremely difficult, however, to determine whether an inappropriate image of God gave rise to the disorder or vice versa”. Pruyser distinguishes between a pathology of faith caused by a psychiatric factor/psychic dysfunction; and faith pathology as the product of a distorted interaction between the content of faith and faith behaviour (quoted in Louw 1998:241).

This discussion so far has sought to link “destructive thinking” i.e. faith pathology and inappropriate God-images, within the realm of the Christian faith so as to foster a more constructive, mature faith and faith development. This thesis then draws on the basic components of pastoral care, so as to develop a suitable theory and approach that can be applied to a wide variety of human problems and crises.