Crecimiento MOCVD del CdTe

trial performance

5.1 Introduction

Situational motivation is shown at the lowest level on the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Vallerand 2000). Whilst there have been many studies assessing the interactions between levels of generality within the hierarchical model itself (Blanchard et al. 2007; Lavigne et al. 2009; Gillet et al. 2010), most of this has been carried out within a physical education environment and on young athletes (Prusak et al. 2004; Standage and Treasure 2002; Lonsdale et al. 2009) There have been few studies investigating the process, changes or

influence of situational motivation on sports performance (Gao et al. 2011).

In study 2, situational motivation was measured in a non-competitive exercise activity and there were no opportunities for objective performance measures. Time trialling is a simple form of competition involving racing against a clock for an individual time. Cyclists usually race alone with no opportunity for drafting and therefore, trial time is a good indicator of an individual’s performance. Jobson et al. (2007) found that laboratory time trials were ecologically valid when compared with real world cycle time trials. However, this study measures time trial performance over a 20 km distance and whilst actual cycle time trials are not ridden over this distance, many laboratory studies have used a 20 km time trial protocol to ensure a degree of novelty in time- trial studies which is often required in pacing studies (Thomas et al. 2011; Peveler and Palmer 2012; Renfree et al. 2012). Thus it was considered that using a time trial situation introduced an element of simple, individually-focused competition in which to assess the complex processes of situational motivation.

As discussed in the literature review, the HMIEM (Vallerand 2000) suggests that the basic tenets of self-determination theory hold true at three levels of generality, namely the global, contextual and situational level. Motivation is thought to arise from the desire to satisfy three basic psychological needs (e.g., competence, relatedness and autonomy) and is expressed as intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation or amotivation (Hein and Hagger 2007). After an individual carries out an action, they may experience change in levels of affect, cognition and future behaviour for the activity (Deci and Ryan 2008; Standage et al. 2008). These changes can include feelings of satisfaction which are related to intrinsic motivation; successful goal

89

uncertainty when constantly failing to achieve goals which relates to amotivation. The HMIEM suggests that this process is identical at the global more persistent level, within different life contexts, and at the situational level of generality.

At the global and contextual levels of motivation, the individual’s dominant motivational orientation is likely to influence their tendency to rely on different combinations of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation when approaching specific situations (Lavigne et al. 2009; Gillet et al. 2010). However, within a specific situation, the individual regularly evaluates the effects of their behaviour in relation to goal achievement and progress (Gernigon et al. 2004; Pierro et al. 2006). Where progress is not satisfactory, the individual may adapt their current strategy or choose an alternative strategy. Whilst this process occurs within contextual performance parameters, at the situational level of generality, strong and over-riding situational demands may require different motivational patterns from the general global and contextual motivational orientations usually displayed. Thus for short-term immediate goals, an

individual’s affective state would influence the perception and interpretation of situational task demands and the selection of a strategy for achieving immediate goals. This process could elicit a different affective response or strengthen the initial response based on the importance,

difficulty and value of the goals and as such affect would be important for stimulating motivation at the situational level (Tubbs and Dahl 1991; Macdonald and Palfai 2008).

Goals are viewed as the major determinants of performance (Wright et al. 1994). The

individual’s interpretation and subsequent response to performance feedback at the situational level may operate on a feedback loop basis where progress towards their goal influences affect which in turn influences immediate goal variations and levels (Ilies and Judge 2005). This is similar to a process of self-regulation where the individual desires a future state and assesses the discrepancy between their current perceived state and the future desired state (Carver and Scheier 1982; 2002). Where the discrepancy is great and the value of the future state or outcome is high, the individual will demonstrate more motivation and effort directed towards attainment (Schmidt and DeShon 2007). However, Chang et al. (2010) found that too great a discrepancy coupled with a perception of slow progress towards a goal was negatively related to task satisfaction, expectations of success and thus persistence towards achieving a short-term goal. Wright et al. (1994) suggest that a simple measure of self-reported perceived goal progress helps develop an understanding of variation in performance, mainly because participants will have had to commit to a goal pre-performance and the self-report measure would reinforce this commitment. A similar measurement tool will be used within this study.

90

Perceived goal discrepancy can also influence the individual’s affective state generating potential drive and effort towards the task or withdrawal of effort from the task (Locke and Latham 2004; Pierro et al. 2006; Levesque et al. 2008). Thus affect prior to performance is surmised to be important in explaining situational motivation processes. Furthermore, as part of the self-regulation of effort within a task, affect is thought to play a significant part in

maintaining persistence and intensity in the short-term, i.e. during a task, providing important goal progress information. Where goal progress feedback is satisfactory, the individual is likely to experience increased positive affect (PA) in terms of feelings of satisfaction and goal

attainment, aligning with intrinsic and extrinsic forms of motivation, or negative feelings where goal achievement requires considerably more effort in relation to perceived benefits (Taylor 1991). This study aims to investigate the factors related to situational motivation and their influence on cycle time trial performance.

It is hypothesised that i) situational motivation as measured using SIMS, will significantly change after riding the fastest time trial, more specifically intrinsic and extrinsic sources will increase and amotivation will decrease, ii) positive affect prior to the trial will be significantly higher for the fast trial compared to the slow trial, iii) negative affect prior to the trial will be significantly lower for the fast trial compared to the slow trial, iv) goal confidence will be significantly higher after riding a fast time trial compared with the slow trial, v) goal

discrepancy scores will be greater for participants who perceive their time trial performance as successful compared with those who perceive their trial as unsuccessful, vi) situational

motivation as measured using SIMS, will be significantly higher for those who perceived their time trial performances to be successful compared to those who perceived their time trial performances as unsuccessful, vii) those who perceive their time trial as successful will report significantly higher positive affect prior to time trial performance compared to those who perceive their trial as unsuccessful, viii) those who perceived their time trial as successful will report significantly lower negative affect prior to time trial performance compared to those who perceive their trial as unsuccessful.

5.2 Method

5.2.1 Design

This study used a repeated measures experimental laboratory-based design to collect data at regular intervals prior to, during and after a cycle time trial. Cyclists performed two laboratory-

91

based, self-paced time trials at least 2 days apart, to further examine changes in situational motivation

5.2.2 Participants

After gaining university ethical approval for this study, six male athletes (age M=32±13 years) with recent experience of competitive endurance cycling, were recruited for this study. All cyclists were training a minimum of 5 times per week. Participants completed an informed consent form agreeing to prepare for each time trial performance as if it were a competition following usual pre-competition nutrition, hydration, training and recovery protocols and simulated competition preparation for warming-up on a cycle ergometer.

5.2.3 Procedure

A repeated measures experimental laboratory-based study was conducted comprising frequent sampling of performance and psychological states prior to, during and following two 20 km time trial performances completed on separate days. The participants reported to the laboratory on two separate occasions and performed a self-paced 20 km cycle time trial on each visit. The time between each visit was a minimum of 2 days and maximum of one week (mean 5±2 days) ensuring recovery time between trials. Prior to each trial participants simulated their usual warm-up for performance. Participants were asked to complete the trial as quickly as possible. They performed a 20 km time trial using their own bicycles mounted onto a Kingcycle

ergometry rig (Kingcycle Ltd, High Wycombe, UK). The Kingcycle rig was calibrated using standard calibration procedures for the Kingcycle v6.7 software package. Data from the Kingcycle was displayed in real time on a computer screen in front of the participants simulating cyclists usual in-performance feedback. Data available to participants during their time trial included speed, time elapsed, percentage distance remaining. Heart rate data was also visible on a watch attached to the handlebars so as not to compromise hand position during cycling.

Pre-time trial measures

Immediately prior to warming up, participants completed a pre-test Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS; Guay et al. 2000) and separately recorded a minimum of one goal for the upcoming trial including a score for how confident they felt at this moment to achieve their goal (see appendix 5, pp217-219). Participants then reported their current positive and negative affect (NA) using the Worcester Affect Scale (WAS; Rhoden and West 2010).

92