education?
Students’ concerns about organizational aspects of the move from the primary to the secondary stages of education, such as getting lost and finding their way between classes, have been articulated by a number of researchers (Akos, 2004; Johnstone, 2001; Ward, 2000). Some of these organizational problems, such as the lack of flexibility in secondary school timetabling, were viewed negatively and seen as impacting on students’ learning experiences but other features, such as the breadth of subjects, were viewed positively (Tobbell, 2003). Fortunately, there is evidence that some of these concerns are temporal in nature and that they reduce after the students have been in secondary school for a few months (Akos & Galassi, as cited in Akos, 2004; Ward, 2000). Temporal aspects of transition tend to pertain to physical elements of the new environment such as size and layout. Following transfer, such concerns are replaced with worries about teacher differences with regard to style and management and students’ organizational skills (Johnstone, 2001), social worries (Ward, 2000) and having to deal with a large number and range of teachers (Tobbell, 2003).
A number of studies have explored students’ views of differences in the learning environment between primary and secondary schools. Prior to transfer to secondary school, students look forward to broadening their learning experiences and being introduced to new subjects (Graham & Hill,
2003). Some negative expectations about secondary school have been identified, such as having more homework, but these worries reduce following transfer (Graham & Hill, 2003). On a positive note, following transfer students report satisfaction with the breadth and variety of subjects in secondary school (Besley, 2004); and opportunities for more movement (Pointon, 2000). In contrast, following transfer concerns have been expressed about the sense of loss of ownership of personal space (Pointon, 2000) and comments about a shift from collaborative to individualized forms of learning (Tobbell, 2003)
The experiences of students from black and ethnic minority backgrounds making the transition to secondary school have been considered in a few of the sourced studies. There is some evidence that students from ethnic minority backgrounds are less positive about the move to secondary school (Graham & Hill. 2003). In follow-up studies the same students reported positive views of their learning experiences in secondary school (Caulfield et al., 2005).
There is a well established literature on the impact of school transfer on students’ progress some of which was sourced for the purposes of this review. Firstly, a positive relationship has been found between adjustment to secondary school and academic progress (Nisbet & Entwhistle, as cited in Galton et al., 1999). There is evidence of a ‘hiatus’ in progress whereby the trend is for pupils’ attainments to ‘dip’ , or ‘stand still’ following transfer (Galton et al., 1999; Suffock, LEA, as cited in Galton et al., 1999; Galton,
Hargreaves, Comber, & Wall, as cited in Galton et al., 1999). Other investigations into the impact of transfer on academic progress have utilised other data sources such as OFSTED inspectors’ judgments of attainment levels (Galton et al., 1999). These provide a similar picture of a relative drop in pupil attainment following to secondary school.
A full consideration of the relationship between motivation and learning is outwith the scope of this review. The relationship between motivation and achievement was explored in a number of the sourced papers. There is evidence of a reduction in motivation levels following an initial period of adjustment, which has been attributed to a loss of self-esteem (Demetriou et al., 2000; Galton, Hargreaves, Comber, & Wall, as cited in Galton et al., 1999). It has been suggested that students’ feelings of competence in dealing with a new situation (middle school) result in higher levels of achievement motivation (Zanobini & Carmen Usai, 2002). This author is of the view that finding ways of facilitating this sense of competence in students could lead to an increase in levels of motivation and educational achievement.
A number of studies have explored students’ views of personal and social aspects of the transition between the primary and secondary stages of education. Prior to transfer to secondary school, students look forward to making new friends (Graham & Hill, 2003). Identified negative social aspects about the anticipated move to secondary school include not knowing anyone, worries about being picked on; and concerns about leaving the stability of
peer relationships formed in the primary school to the insecurity of forming new social groups in the high school. (Graham & Hill, 2003; Johnstone, 2001). Teachers are also seen as playing a significant role in facilitating social relationships (Pietarinen, 2000).
The role of peers in helping students negotiate the transition has been highlighted in a number of studies (Pietarinen, 1998; Pietarinen, 2000; Pratt & George, 2005; Caulfield, Hill, & Shelton, 2005). Taking a social constructionist perspective, Kvalsund (2000) sees social relationships and friendships as critical to the development and maintenance of shared understandings of key life events such as transfer to a new school.
Gender differences have been found with regard to the role of same sex peers during transition, and in the expression of image and status issues (Pratt & George, 2005). Taking a dominance theory perspective, Pellegrini and Long (2002) predicted and found that levels of bullying and other forms of proactive aggression initially increased then decreased following school transfer. This was construed as a means of establishing dominance in a new peer group situation and was more prevalent in boys than girls.
Black and ethnic minority students’ perceptions of learning experiences were reported earlier (Caulfield, et al., 2005). From a personal and social perspective, there were positive and negative dimensions. The former included references to having a greater choice of friends. The latter included reference to more perceived racism in the secondary school context. The
role of friendships and peer relationships was again highlighted as a supportive factor in negotiating the transition process.
Prior to transfer, there is evidence that, for a number of students, the anticipated move to secondary school engenders stress and feelings of anxiety (Pratt & George, 2005). Some writers have viewed anxiety as having a constructive function in helping the individual adapt to a new situation (Lucey & Reay, 2000).
Others have suggested that increased levels of anxiety are experienced by students prior to any significant educational transition, such as year to year, as well as school to school (Lohaus, et al., 2004). They also propose that there are individual differences in the ability to adapt to change.
There are equivocal views as to whether there are gender differences in the levels of anxiety associated with transfer, with some studies finding girls with higher levels; some reporting higher levels in boys and some no difference (Pratt & George, 2005; Orosan, Weine, Jason, & Johnson, as cited in Pratt &,George, 2005; Lohaus, et al., 2004).