The included papers (mostly theoretical) have highlighted some central themes of (1) design culture (existing risk-communication process and user considerations); (2) use of evidence (processes and variables that may affect or enhance user interaction with a risk-communication). Themes have been further explored, using the previously established frameworks and models discussed in this chapter, including the framework developed for older adults McLaughlin and Mayhorn, 2014, which has resulted in the researcher producing the first iteration of a risk management model in Figure 2.14.
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Figure 2.14 First version of the framework relevant to risk communications for young children, developed by the researcher
Ergonomics guidelines can sometimes be too general to apply to a project or else too specific to the application for which they were initially developed. Most of the guidelines do not take into account users’ psychological characteristics, such as their previous experience with a product, expectations, perception of risk, and attitude. One exception is the McLaughlin and Mayhorn model (2014), which takes these attributes into account. The adapted McLaughlin and Mayhorn model (2014) considers children’s psychological characteristics during the relevant developmental stages: their previous experience with a product, expectations, perception of risk, and attitude. The model has also incorporated the effects of interaction with a caregiver into the process.
4. 4. Quantitative assessment of persuasive effects 3. 3. Concept testing &
message checks Receiver needs Receiver Analysis Knowledge , skills & abilities required Selection & design of risk communication Design recommendations Testing & evaluation (Guidelines from Waterson & Monk., 2014) 1. Pilot work 2. Medssage exposure
Caregiver characteristics • Parenting experience • Beliefs • Parenting style • Knowledge • Perceptions Receiver characteristics • Development stage • Temperament • Activity level • Risk taking • Cognitive ability
Environment of risk communication Methodology stages
Dynamic detriments of risk perception
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2.7.1.1 Challenges with the literature review
The main challenges faced during the literature review were first a distinct lack of research in the area and secondly that available studies suitable to the research varied greatly, making it difficult for the researcher to compare their results. Another potential challenge with the literature review relates to the sample sizes and the ages of the children studied. There were incomplete data on the children’s ages, even in the most recent studies of risk communication. The methodologies used in the research reported on include surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, and focus groups. Some observations took place in a controlled laboratory setting, whereas others took place in the child’s natural environment, such as a classroom environment. These studies’ results are also based on a small number of participants and are therefore difficult to generalise, as they are less likely to be representative of the more significant population of interest.
2.7.2 Conclusions
A literature review has been conducted as part of Phase One of the thesis. This chapter concludes by identifying the research gaps and formulating the research questions as the starting point for further analysis in the subsequent chapters. The overall aim of the literature review was to provide a relevant theoretical perspective that can be used to inform the research process. A first version of a framework has been generated on the basis of the review of the literature and other models (Figure2.14). The review aimed to understand how research that informs risk-communication design is both conducted and used, by looking at literature in the fields of human factors and other areas described throughout. The literature provides background information on the history of this area to better establish the context for the development of a design tool for use by designers when considering relevant safety aspects and interaction in designing risk communications for young children.
2.7.2.1 Knowledge gaps
There is a great deal of relevant research and theory regarding adults and other groups. This review attempted to extract information relevant to the design of risk communications aimed at young children. The first point identified from the research is
58 the limited amount of information and empirical research in the area concerning the unique user population of young children. To enable the effective design of risk communications, a knowledge base needs to be developed on how children understand and comply with risk communications. However, it is apparent from the review of the literature and the existing models of risk communication that many gaps remain in our knowledge.
The literature review indicates that there are both methodological limitations and gaps in existing knowledge, including the following:
• Disproportionately little has been published on the topic of human factors as it relates to children (see Table 2.4: Age Ranges and Methods).
• There appears to be a lack of evidence-based guidelines for the design of visual warning information, with a predominance of non-evidence-based literature and little that has been conducted in the UK (see Table 2.4: Age Ranges and Methods).
• Much of the research on warning theory and the design and evaluation of risk communications has focused on adults and has not considered young children.
• Many of the findings from prior research point to the need for behavioural testing with the relevant age group of children.
• The results revealed sources and key theoretical inputs in warning design and risk communications situated within the human-factors literature about the adult population that may also be relevant to developing communications for young children’s safety.
• One major limitation is that further behavioural testing with children is not easy to conduct. As discussed, when research does involve children, the data collection processes are not well documented.
These gaps have formed the basis for a series of research questions which will inform the empirical data collection approach.
2.7.2.2 Research questions
This chapter presented a literature review regarding the field of human factors as it relates to the research topic. This set the context for further research and provided background information on the history of this area.
59 Following the literature review and the finding of a lack of empirical research in the area, the following questions are relevant to explore:
• What types of tools and resources are currently available for designers when designing for children?
• What types of information was the researcher able to source from both academics and practitioners?
The resource review presents a critical review of aspects available in various resources, tools, models, grey literature, and reports across other areas, as well as currently available information for design. The resource review in the following chapter will aim to fill the gap in the theoretical knowledge with a detailed description of the systems approach to risk communications, including the development and key components of a framework for the design of risk communications aimed at young children.
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Chapter 3: Methodology
Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the methods used for data collection and analysis in the different phases of the research.