El poder de la palabra bajo vigilancia en la
3. El cuerpo encadenado
Knowledge of the characteristics and consequences of previous eruptions provides invaluable input into defining the context in which response activities could take place. This information also identifies the range/diversity of hazard consequences. Ski area staff will need to understand this, and use this knowledge to develop contingent decision competencies to deal with emergent and possibly rapidly changing circumstances (Paton and Flin, 1999; Paton and Jackson, 2002).
3.4.1 1945
In March 1945, a viscous andesitic lava dome began growing in the Crater Lake, slowly displacing the water through a natural outlet into the Whangaehu Valley (Williams, 1986). A large eruption was observed on March 26th and then activity was relatively quiet throughout April. The first two
weeks of May saw steam and ash emitted in a continuous column, however the lava dome appeared to stop growing in the second half of May. Activity increased in June and the lava dome continued to grow, entirely displacing the Crater Lake. On July 1st, two trampers were injured when an explosion showered them with hot rocks. One was knocked unconscious and both received burns (Johnston and Neall, 1995). After the lake had disappeared, explosive activity began to commence starting in August, 1945 and continuing until November, 1945. The main hazard was ejection of volcanic blocks landing up to 1.5 kilometres from the crater and ash fall (Williams, 1986). At the end of August, skiing on Ruapehu was abandoned due to ash fall (Johnston and Neall, 1995). If this eruption were to have occurred during the present day ski season in the middle of the day, it is likely the ski areas would be quickly evacuated and the biggest hazard to customers, staff, and infrastructure would be ash fall.
3.4.2 1969
The eruption sequence began on 22 June 1969, just after midnight, and 29 minutes after seismic tremor had begun (Williams, 1986). The Dome seismograph was destroyed soon after, likely by the main eruption which was accompanied by a ML 3.5 volcanic earthquake (Otway et al., 1995). The
large eruption resulted in 30% of the Crater Lake being ejected (Williams, 1986). Southerly winds caused the majority of ejecta to be deposited in the Whakapapanui and Whakapapaiti catchments, creating lahars in the Whakapapanui, Whakapapaiti, Mangaturuturu, and Whangaehu valleys, and later flooding in the Whakapapa area. The lahar passed through Whakapapa ski area, destroying or
Chapter Three 28
severely damaging the Dome Shelter and the Staircase Kiosk (Figure 3.6). It is estimated that near the top of the Far West T-Bar (about 1 kilometre down from Crater Lake) the velocity of the lahar was ~17 m/s (Otway et al., 1995). It is estimated that the lahar was up to 2.5m thick and 30m wide (Williams, 1986), and the total volume of the Whakapapa lahar has been estimated at 117,000 m3
.
Ash arrived at Iwikau Village shortly after (Otway, 1995).
Figure 3.6 Staircase Kiosk (since removed) damaged by 1969 lahar (GNS)
The Ruapehu lahars of the 1969 eruption were easily documented due to clear weather and pre- eruption snow cover. Numerous aerial and ground photographs were taken of the lahars’ paths. These paths have been used in lahar hazard planning by the ski area companies (Otway et al., 1995).
If this eruption were to occur during the present-day ski season in the middle of the day, it is possible that hundreds of skiers would be in the lahar path when the eruption would begin. Skiers and staff would then have to respond to the warning system by moving to higher ground. After the lahar passed, it is likely that groups of people would be isolated by the lahar path. The evacuation situation would also be greatly complicated by the immediate prospect of ash fall on the ski area.
3.4.3 1975
This eruption began early on 24 April 1975. A ML 4 earthquake was recorded but the actual
eruption was not observed. It is estimated the explosion was equivalent to the detonation of about 20 kilotons of high explosive (Williams, 1986). Lahars were created in the Whakapapanui,
Whakapapaiti, Mangaturuturu, and Whangaehu valleys, as 25% of the water in the Crater Lake was
Background Information on Skiing at Ruapehu 29
ejected (Williams, 1986). Water passed through the “Notch” of the Central Crater, flowing onto the Whakapapanui glacier down through the Whakapapa ski area. The lahar passed to the east of and below the Staircase Kiosk and beneath the Waterfall chairlift and T-Bar terminals (Figure 3.7). Damage was done to all
three buildings. The total volume of the Whakapapa lahar was estimated at 900,000 m3. Another
eruption occurred on 27 April 1975, but only one lahar down the Whangaehu glacier was generated
(Otway et al., 1995). Figure 3.7 Chairlift (since removed) damaged by
1975 lahar (GNS)
If this eruption would occur during the present-day ski season in the middle of the day, there is potential for hundreds of skiers to be in the path of the lahar when the alarm sounds. To survive, skiers would either have to know the correct response actions (move to higher ground) or be instructed to do so by staff. Groups of skiers and staff may be isolated by the lahar paths,
complicating the evacuation. Infrastructure damage would likely be inconsequential, as structures damaged by this lahar have since been removed.
3.4.4 1995 and 1996
This eruption sequence began in the morning on 18 September 1995, although it was not seen due to bad weather. A large lahar was seen in the Whangaehu River from the Tukino ski area. On Saturday 23 September 1995, there were many skiers on the ski areas during the day due to good weather. The largest eruption of the sequence began an hour after the ski areas had closed. Ballistics were thrown 1 kilometre from the vent. Lahars were created in the Whangaehu, Mangaturuturu, and Whakapapaiti drainage basins (Department of Conservation, 1996). Two separate lahars entered the western areas of Whakapapa ski area within 90 seconds of the eruption (Nairn et al., 1996). One ran down the Outer Limits/Three Boys Bowl run. The second lahar ran through the Turn Pipe run into the Far West ski area, and exited out through Turner’s Valley
Chapter Three 30
(Department of Conservation, 1996) (Figure 3.8). The Lahar Warning System for the ski area was never triggered (Nairn et al., 1996; Sherburn and Bryan, 1999).
Figure 3.8 Far West T-Bar and 1995 lahars (GNS)
If this eruption was to occur during the present-day ski season in the middle of the day, it is likely that hundreds, if not thousands, of skiers would be in the popular Far West area, including many out-of-bounds skiers. Due to the alarm not sounding, and the short time between the eruption and the entry of the lahars into the ski area (estimated 90 seconds), it is likely that many skiers would remain in the lahar path, resulting in a high casualty rate. Evacuation of the Far West area would be complicated by the presence of the lahar paths, as well as the relative isolation of the area from the rest of the ski area.
Background Information on Skiing at Ruapehu 31
On 25 September 1995, Tukino ski area was closed for the season due to ash fall (Department of Conservation, 1996). The largest lahars of the eruption sequence occurred in the Whangaehu valley (Nairn et al., 1995). Ash fall occurred into October, and on 2 October 1995 Turoa ski area received a thin layer of this ash. The area was able to stay open due to following snowfalls. On 13 October 1995, ash eruptions intensified and subsequent ash fall covered the Whakapapa ski area, which then closed for the season (Department of Conservation, 1996). Later in October, a secondary debris flow occurred on the Whakapapa ski area, running down the Gut and coming within 120 metres of the Waterfall T-Bar drive station (Department of Conservation, 1996)
If this secondary debris flow where to occur during the present-day ski season in the middle of the day, it is likely that ten to
fifty skiers may be present in the queue lines near the Waterfall drive station (Figure 3.9), as well as skiers in the Gut. There would be many
injuries/casualties, as there is no warning system to warn of secondary debris flows, so skiers and staff would be caught off-guard.
Figure 3.9 Waterfall T-Bar drive station, 2005 winter season
Chapter Three 18
Strong gas emission continued into November (Department of Conservation, 1996). By the end of the eruptions, the Crater Lake (10 million m3) was completely empty. Secondary lahars
occurred as spring rainfall and snowmelt remobilized the ash and scoria at the top of Ruapehu, though none affected any of the ski areas (Nairn et al., 1996).
A sequence of phreatomagmatic eruptions then occurred on 17 June 1996. Ash from these eruptions spread over most of the North Island, especially to the north and west of the vent. The last eruption was on 1 September 1996. Ash from these eruptions resulted in the closure of all ski areas on Ruapehu for most of the season (Johnston et al., 2000). The eruptions disrupted the ski season and caused large economic losses for the companies through both direct risk-related closure and lack of customers due to public concern. Damage was caused to most facilities on all three areas. Rust damage was severe, particularly to lift towers and galvanized iron fittings. The ski areas
took