CUESTIONARIO APLICADO A DOCENTES DE SEGUNDO AÑO DE EDUCACIÓN

Within the tourism field, satisfaction has typically been examined in the context of tourist experiences with travel agencies, accommodation and destinations (del Bosque & Martín 2008), and studies have usually been conducted after the service has been consumed. In examining the factors that lead to improved satisfaction, del Bosque et al. (2009) found that destination experience is greatly influenced by tourist expectations, and that ultimate satisfaction with the experience affects individual beliefs about future encounters. This finding is consistent with Oliver’s conclusions (1980). The expectations associated with tourist experiences generally relate to accommodation (Husbands 1994), activities (Pesonen & Komppula 2010), destination exploration (Kim 1997), interactions with locals (Chen & Chen 2011) and fellow travellers (Tung & Ritchie 2011), safety (Khan 2003), the development or practising of skills (Kim 1997) and support provided by staff from the sending agency or travel organisation (Luk et al. 1994). An extensive list of references for each of these categories is provided in Table 2 on page 121.

Since tourism is an experiential product, tourism experiences are often viewed as risky and entailing high levels of involvement. This increases the importance of external communications which are responsible for shaping expectations about the service product (Clow et al. 1997). As a predictor of future destination experience, word-of- mouth recommendations from trusted friends and relatives are critical, particularly in view of the intangibility of the product (File, Cermak & Prince 1994). This highlights the importance of creating positive experiences during the initial encounter, thereby driving demand for the experience through positive word of mouth and repeat visitation impacts. Further evidence to support the creation of positive tourist experiences lies in the disproportionately positive effect of fulfilled expectations on satisfaction,

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particularly in the case of those who started with elevated comparison standards (San Martín, Collado & del Bosque 2009).

In response to research on expectations and satisfaction, certain recommendations have emerged in the tourism literature in regard to managing expectations. Some proprietors have sought to lower expectations through marketing, no longer seeking to attract potential visitors through fantastical marketing descriptions, instead riding on the popularity of established destinations while providing realistic expectations of the experience (Yüksel & Rimmington 1998). The rationale for this recommendation follows the reasoning that satisfaction is a result of the fulfilment of expectations, hence the key to satisfaction is that of lowering expectations instead of creating exceptional experiences (Yüksel & Rimmington 1998). Given the rationale, this strategy may make sense in contrast to the disappointment of over-promising, but it is counter-productive to the improvement and progress of the tourism industry, encouraging the production of low-hanging fruit as opposed to the development of quality products and experiences.

As well as being applied to tourism generally, expectancy theory has also been used in the context of volunteerism. Volunteer tourists are typically unpaid for their participation, opting instead to pay for the privilege of being involved in volunteer tourism projects. On this basis the literature on volunteerism may provide insights about managing the expectations of volunteer tourists. Although the volunteer management literature typically concentrates on organisation-volunteer relationships that are sustained over longer periods of time, a parallel between the more temporally bound relationship of the sending organisation and the volunteer tourist could prospectively be drawn in the case of volunteer tourism.

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Ralston et al. (2004) undertook an examination of episodic volunteering, of which some forms of volunteer tourism may serve as examples. They found that the satisfaction of event volunteers was influenced by expectations that are formed both before and during an event, and that management and administration attributes contribute to this satisfaction. Farmer and Fedor (1999) found that voluntary-agency administrators could use the promissory contract that an individual believes to be the basis of obligations and terms in a reciprocal relationship (Rousseau 1989) to help them understand and manage volunteers more effectively. They found that the fulfilment of expectations could increase participation, thereby providing a more consistent source of manpower for the organisation through increased volunteer satisfaction and enhanced future volunteering intentions. On the other hand, if individual expectations cannot be met by the organisation, the breach in this relationship can result in anger, resentment, and reduced commitment and participation, which can ultimately spread to other volunteers and even to external contacts (Coyle-Shapiro 2002; Morrison & Robinson 1997; Parzefall & Coyle-Shapiro 2011). Furthermore, the volunteer management literature has consistently advocated the use of extensive orientation practices, such as familiarising volunteers with the tasks they can expect. Such practices can boost retention and may contribute to effectiveness through lowering turnover (Cuskelly et al. 2006; Jamison 2003; Persson 2004).

If an organisation is unable to change its processes or conditions to suit the expectations of volunteers, an alternative solution may involve the adjustment of individual expectations. Although this aspect has not been addressed in the literature on volunteering, it has been considered within the wider management literature. Research has emphasised the importance of pre-entry socialisation in developing

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desired behaviours and expectations, particularly in the recruitment and orientation phases (Garavan & Morley 1997; Scholarios, Lockyer & Johnson 2003). These activities may inform individuals about any expectations attached to their organisational roles and reiterate their psychological contract with the organisation. This has also been encouraged by Ralston et al. (2004), who noted that proactive methods of imbuing volunteers with a positive, and yet realistic, set of expectations should be promoted during the lead-in periods of recruitment and training. It is evident that the fulfilment of expectations can therefore boost volunteer satisfaction and future volunteering intentions.

The literature on expectations in both tourism and volunteerism has generated an extensive list of what participants, tourists and volunteers expect from their experience. Many relevant studies have been conducted in organisational settings, with expectations typically explored in the context of human resources management found to affect continued participation in the context of volunteerism (Taylor et al. 2006; Wilson 2012). Studies of satisfaction in tourism have often been framed in the context of service encounters with travel agencies, accommodation, destinations and/or tours. While studies have varied in their level of detail, they have typically presented a number of key expectations. In the case of tourism, these relate to the activities that tourists will undertake during their travels, the comfort and convenience of their accommodation, exploration of the destination, interaction with locals and immersion in a foreign culture, safety in an unfamiliar environment, and support from their tour provider (del Bosque & Martín 2008; Fang, Tepanon & Uysal 2008; Pizam, Neumann & Reichel 1978; Yoon & Uysal 2005). In the field of volunteerism, the expectations partially resemble those in tourism, notably those relating to volunteering in a safe environment, involvement in activities which will benefit others and support from their

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volunteer organisations (Farmer & Fedor 1997; Liao-Troth & Dunn 1999). Other key expectations in the study of volunteerism have included the chance to interact with other participants and to practice new or existing skills (Clary, Snyder & Stukas 1996; Davis Smith 2000). A more extensive list of references, relating to these eight categories of expectation is included in Table 2 on page 121. These tourism and volunteering related expectations formed the basis for engaging interviewees in discussions about their expectations, providing a platform that stimulated recall but allowed sufficient freedom for them to elaborate on their personal expectations. While these expectations have been explored extensively, it is also imperative to examine expectations that are particular to volunteer tourism to in order to advance knowledge in the field.

Returning to the research problem that is central to this study, the behavioural intentions of volunteer tourists post-return from their trips are pertinent to the current discussion of expectations. While there may be other factors influencing behavioural intentions, the EDP provides a lens through which changes to behavioural intentions may be viewed. By using EDP, the effect of expectations and subsequent disconfirmation on the travelling and volunteering intentions of volunteer tourists may be more thoroughly examined. In the next chapter, the research questions of the study will be articulated, along with their underpinning rationale based on the literature review of tourism, volunteerism, volunteer tourism and EDP.

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